The Human Motor Control System's Response to Mechanical Perturbation: Should It, Can It and Does It Ensure Stability?

References

• Adamovich, S. V., Levin, M. F., & Feldman, A. G. (1997). Central modifications of reflex parameters may underlie the fastest arm movements. Journal of Neurophysiology, 77, 1460-1469.
   Google Scholar
• Bagesteiro, L. B., & Sainburg, R. L. (2002). Handedness: Dominant arm advantages in control of limb dynamics. Journal of Neurophysiology, 88, 2408-2421.
   Google Scholar
• Baratta, R. V., Solomonow, M., & Zhou, B. H. (1998). Frequency-domain-based models of skeletal muscle. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 8, 79-91.
   Google Scholar
• Barker, D. (1974). The morphology of muscle receptors. In C. C. Hunt (Ed.), Handbook of sensory physiology (Vol. 3, pp. 1-190). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
   Google Scholar
• Bennett, D. J. (1994). Stretch reflex responses in the human elbow joint during a voluntary movement. Journal of Physiology, 474, 339-351.
   Google Scholar
• Bennett, D. J., Gorassini, M., & Prochazka, A. (1994). Catching a ball: Contributions of intrinsic muscle stiffness, reflexes, and higher order responses. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 72, 525-534.
   Google Scholar
• Bennett, D. J., Hollerbach, J. M., Xu, Y., & Hunter, I. W. (1992). Timevarying stiffness of human elbow joint during cyclic voluntary movement. Experimental Brain Research, 88, 433-442.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, R. H. J. (1963). The flight of birds. Biological Reviews, 38, 460-489.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, S. H., & Cooke, J. D. (1986). Initial agonist burst is modified by perturbations preceding movement. Brain Research, 377, 311-322.
   Google Scholar
• Crago, P. E., Houk, J. C., & Hasan, Z. (1976). Regulatory actions of human stretch reflex. Journal of Neurophysiology, 39, 925-935.
   Google Scholar
• Crisco, J. J., & Panjabi, M. M. (1990). Postural biomechanical stability and gross muscular architecture in the spine. In J. M. Winters & S. L.-Y. Woo (Eds.), Multiple muscle systems: Biomechanics and movement organization (pp. 438-450). New York: Springer-Verlag.
   Google Scholar
• DiCaprio, R. A., & Clarac, F. (1981). Reversal of a walking leg reflex elicited by a muscle receptor. Journal of Experimental Biology, 90, 197-203.
   Google Scholar
• Dudley, R. (2002). Mechanisms and implications of animal flight maneuverability. Integrative and Comparative Biology, 42, 135-140.
   Google Scholar
• Franklin, D. W., Burdet, E., Osu, R., Kawato, M., & Milner, T. E. (2003). Functional significance of stiffness in adaptation of multijoint arm movements to stable and unstable dynamics. Experimental Brain Research, 151, 145-157.
   Google Scholar
• Franklin, D. W., & Milner, T. E. (2003). Adaptive control of stiffness to stabilize hand position with large loads. Experimental Brain Research, 152, 211-220.
   Google Scholar
• Burgess, P. R., Jones, L. F., Buhler, C. F., Dewald, J. P. A., Zhang, L.-Q., & Rymer, W. Z. (2002). Muscular torque generation during imposed joint rotation: Torque-angle relationships when subjects' only goal is to make a constant effort. Somatosensory and Motor Research, 19, 327-340.
   Google Scholar
• Cattaert, D., & LeRay, D. (2001). Adaptive motor control in crayfish. Progress in Neurobiology, 63, 199-240.
   Google Scholar
• Franklin, D. W., Osu, R., Burdet, E., Kawato, M., & Milner, T. E. (2003). Adaptation to stable and unstable dynamics achieved by combined impedance control and inverse dynamics model. Journal of Neurophysiology, 90, 3270-3282.
   Google Scholar
• Full, R. J., Kubow, T., Schmitt, J., Holmes, P., & Koditscheka, D. (2002). Quantifying dynamic stability and maneuverability in legged locomotion. Integrative and Comparative Biology, 42, 149-157.
   Google Scholar
• Gottlieb, G. L., & Agarwal, G. C. (1980). Response to sudden torques about ankle in man. III. Suppression of stretch-evoked responses during phasic contraction. Journal of Neurophysiology, 44, 233-246.
   Google Scholar
• Granata, K. P., & Orishimo, K. F. (2001). Response of trunk muscle coactivation to changes in spinal stability. Journal of Biomechanics, 34, 1117-1123.
   Google Scholar
• Hasan, Z. (1991). Biomechanics and the study of multijoint movements. In D. R. Humphrey & H.-J. Freund (Eds.), Motor control: Concepts and issues (pp. 75-84). Chichester, England: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Hasan, Z. (1992). Role of proprioceptors in neural control. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 2, 824-829.
   Google Scholar
• Hasan, Z., & Enoka, R. M. (1985). Isometric torque-angle relationship and movement-related activity of human elbow flexors: Implications for the equilibrium-point hypothesis. Experimental Brain Research, 59, 441-450.
   Google Scholar
• Hidler, J. M., & Rymer, W. Z. (1999). A simulation study of reflex instability in spasticity: Origins of clonus. IEEE Transactions on Rehabilitation Engineering, 7, 327-340.
   Google Scholar
• Hof, A. L. (1998). In vivo measurement of the series elasticity release curve of human triceps surae muscle. Journal of Biomechanics, 31, 793-800.
   Google Scholar
• Jacks, A., Prochazka, A., & Trend, P. S. (1988). Instability in human forearm movements studied with feed-back-controlled electrical stimulation of muscles. Journal of Physiology, 402, 443-461.
   Google Scholar
• Jordan, D. W., & Smith, P. (1999). Nonlinear ordinary differential equations: An introduction to dynamical systems. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Knop, G., Denzer, L., & Buschges, A. (2001). A central pattern-generating network contributes to "reflex-reversal"-like leg motoneuron activity in the locust. Journal of Neurophysiology, 86, 3065-3068.
   Google Scholar
• Lacquaniti, F., & Soechting, J. F. (1986). EMG responses to load perturbations of the upper limb: Effect of dynamic coupling between shoulder and elbow motion. Experimental Brain Research, 61, 482-496.
   Google Scholar
• Lakie, M., Caplan, N., & Loram, I. D. (2003). Human balancing of an inverted pendulum with a compliant linkage: Neural control by anticipatory intermittent bias. Journal of Physiology, 551, 357-370.
   Google Scholar
• Latash, M. L. (2000). The organization of quick corrections within a two-joint synergy in conditions of unexpected blocking and release of a fast movement. Clinical Neurophysiology, 111, 975-987.
   Google Scholar
• Koshland, G. F., Gerilovsky, L., & Hasan, Z. (1991). Activity of wrist muscles during imposed or voluntary movements about the elbow joint. Journal of Motor Behavior, 23, 91-100.
   Google Scholar
• Koshland, G. F., & Hasan, Z. (2000). Electromyographic responses to a mechanical perturbation applied during impending arm movements in different directions: One-joint and two-joint conditions. Experimental Brain Research, 132, 485-499.
   Google Scholar
• Lacquaniti, F., & Soechting, J. F. (1984). Behavior of the stretch reflex in a multi-jointed limb. Brain Research, 311, 161-166.
   Google Scholar
• Gottlieb, G. L. (1996). On the voluntary movement of compliant (inertial-viscoelastic) loads by parcellated control mechanisms. Journal of Neurophysiology, 76, 3207-3229.
   Google Scholar
• Prochazka, A., & Trend, P. S. (1988). Instability in human forearm movements studied with feed-back-controlled muscle vibration. Journal of Physiology, 402, 421-442.
   Google Scholar
• Rouche, N., & Mawhin, J. (1980). Ordinary differential equations: Stability and periodic solutions (R. E. Gaines, Trans.). Boston: Pitman Advanced Publishing Program.
   Google Scholar
• Scholz, J. P., & Schóner, G. (1999). The uncontrolled manifold concept: Identifying control variables for a functional task. Experimental Brain Research, 126, 289-306.
   Google Scholar
• Wang, T., Dordevic, G. S., & Shadmehr, R. (2001). Learning the dynamics of reaching movements results in the modification of arm impedance and long-latency perturbation responses. Biological Cybernetics, 85, 437-448.
   Google Scholar
• Weihs, D. (2002). Stability versus maneuverability in aquatic locomotion. Integrative and Comparative Biology, 42, 127-134.
   Google Scholar
• Wilmink, R. J., & Nichols, T. R. (2003). Distribution of heterogenic reflexes among the quadriceps and triceps surae muscles of the cat hind limb. Journal of Neurophysiology, 90, 2310-2324.
   Google Scholar
• Won, J., & Hogan, N. (1995). Stability properties of human reaching movements. Experimental Brain Research, 107, 125-136.
   Google Scholar
• McIntyre, J., Mussa-Ivaldi, F. A., & Bizzi, E. (1996). The control of stable postures in the multijoint arm. Experimental Brain Research, 110, 248-264.
   Google Scholar
• Merton, P. A. (1953). Speculations on the servo-control of movements. In J. L. Malcolm, J. A. B. Gray, & G. E. W. Wolstenholm (Eds.), The spinal cord (pp. 183-198). Boston: Little Brown.
   Google Scholar
• Merton, P. A. (1972). How we control the contraction of our muscles. Scientific American, 226, 30-37.
   Google Scholar
• Morasso, P. G., & Sanguineti, V. (2002). Ankle muscle stiffness alone cannot stabilize balance during quiet standing. Journal of Neurophysiology, 88, 2157-2162.
   Google Scholar
• Nichols, T. R., & Houk, J. C. (1976). Improvement in linearity and regulation of stiffness that results from actions of stretch reflex. Journal of Neurophysiology, 39, 119-142.
   Google Scholar
• Pearson, K. G., & Collins, D. F. (1993). Reversal of the influence of group Ib afferents from plantaris on activity in medial gastrocnemius muscle during locomotor activity. Journal of Neurophysiology, 70, 1009-1017.
   Google Scholar
• Pratt, C. A. (1995). Evidence of positive force feedback among hindlimb extensors in the intact standing cat. Journal of Neurophysiology, 73, 2578-2583.
   Google Scholar
• Prochazka, A. (1989). Sensorimotor gain control: A basic strategy of motor systems? Progress in Neurobiology, 33, 281-307.
   Google Scholar
• Prochazka, A., Gillard, D., & Bennett, D. J. (1997a). Implications of positive feedback in the control of movement. Journal of Neurophysiology, 77, 3237-3251.
   Google Scholar
• Prochazka, A., Gillard, D., & Bennett, D. J. (1997b). Positive force feedback control of muscles. Journal of Neurophysiology, 77, 3226-3236.
   Google Scholar
• Loram, I. D., & Lakie, M. (2002). Direct measurement of human ankle stiffness during quiet standing: The intrinsic mechanical stiffness is insufficient for stability. Journal of Physiology, 545, 1041-1053.
   Google Scholar
• Loram, I. D., Maganaris, C. N., & Lakie, M. (2004). Paradoxical muscle movement in human standing. Journal of Physiology, 556, 683-689.
   Google Scholar
• Marsden, C. D., Rothwell, J. C., & Day, B. L. (1983). Long-latency automatic responses to muscle stretch in man: Origin and function. Advances in Neurology, 39, 509-539.
   Google Scholar
• Shapiro, M. B., Gottlieb, G. L., & Corcos, D. M. (2004). EMG responses to an unexpected load in fast movements are delayed with an increase in the expected movement time. Journal of Neurophysiology, 91, 2135-2147.
   Google Scholar
• Skorupski, P., & Sillar, K. T. (1986). Phase-dependent reversal of reflexes mediated by the thoracocoxal muscle receptor organ in the crayfish Pacifastacus leniusculus. Journal of Neurophysiology, 55, 689-695.
   Google Scholar
• Smeets, J. B. J., Erkelens, C. J., & Denier van der Gon, J. J. (1995). Perturbations of fast goal-directed arm movements: Different behavior of early and late EMG responses. Journal of Motor Behavior, 27, 77-88.
   Google Scholar
• Soechting, J. F. (1988). Effect of load perturbations on EMG activity and trajectories of pointing movements. Brain Research, 451, 390-396.
   Google Scholar
• Soechting, J. F. (1989). Elements of coordinated arm movements in three-dimensional space. In S. A. Wallace (Ed.), Perspectives on the coordination of movement (pp. 47-83). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
   Google Scholar
• Stein, R. B., Hunter, I. W., Lafontaine, S. R., & Jones, L. A. (1995). Analysis of short-latency reflexes in human elbow flexor muscles. Journal of Neurophysiology, 73, 1900-1911.
   Google Scholar
• Strogatz, S. H. (1994). Nonlinear dynamics and chaos: With applications to physics, biology, chemistry, and engineering. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
   Google Scholar
• Struble, R. A. (1962). Nonlinear differential equations. New York: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Sukhdeo, S. C., & Page, C. H. (1992) Abdominal postural motor responses initiated by the muscle receptor organ in lobster depend upon centrally generated motor activity. Journal of Experimental Biology, 162, 167-183.
   Google Scholar
• Todorov, E., & Jordan, M. I. (2002). Optimal feedback control as a theory of motor coordination. Nature Neuroscience, 5, 1226-1235.
   Google Scholar
• Tórók, J. S. (2000). Analytical mechanics: With an introduction to dynamical systems. New York: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Tyler, A. E., & Hasan, Z. (1995). Qualitative discrepancies between trunk muscle activity and dynamic postural requirements at the initiation of arm reaching movements performed while sitting. Experimental Brain Research, 107, 87-95.
   Google Scholar
• Valls-Sole, J., Rothwell, J. C., Goulart, F., Cossu, G., & Munoz, E. (1999). Patterned ballistic movements triggered by a startle in healthy humans. Journal of Physiology, 516, 931-938.
   Google Scholar
• Morasso, P. G., & Schieppati, M. (1999). Can muscle stiffness alone stabilize upright standing? Journal of Neurophysiology, 82, 1622-1626.
   Google Scholar
• Gielen, C. C., Ramaekers, L., & van Zuylen, E. J. (1988). Long-latency stretch reflexes as co-ordinated functional responses in man. Journal of Physiology, 407, 275-292.
   Google Scholar
• Gopal, M. (1984). Modern control system theory. New Delhi, India: Wiley Eastern.
   Google Scholar