Modelling snow ice and superimposed ice on landfast sea ice in Kongsfjorden, Svalbard

References

• Adolphs U. Ice thickness variability, isostatic balance and potential for snow ice formation on ice floes in the south polar Pacific Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 1998; 103: 24675–24691.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AMAP (Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme). Snow, water, ice and permafrost in the Arctic (SWIPA): climate change and the cryosphere. 2011; Oslo: Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme.
   Google Scholar
• Anderson E.A. A point energy and mass balance model of a snow cover. NOAA Technical Report 19. 1976; Silver Spring, MD: US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Hydrology.
   Google Scholar
• Auer A.H. The rain versus snow threshold temperatures. Weatherwise. 1974; 27: 67.
   Google Scholar
• Briegleb B.P., Bitz C.M., Hunke E.C., Lipscomb W.H., Holland M.M., Schramm J.L., Moritz R.E. Scientific description of the sea ice component in the Community Climate System Model, Version Three. NCAR Technical Report NCAR/TN-463+STR. 2004; Boulder, CO: National Center for Atmospheric Research..
   Google Scholar
• Cheng B., Launiainen J., Vihma T. Modelling of superimposed ice formation and subsurface melting in the Baltic Sea. Geophysica. 2003; 39: 31–50.
   Google Scholar
• Cheng B., Mäkynen M., Similä M., Rontu L., Vihma T. Modelling snow and ice thickness in the coastal Kara Sea. Annals of Glaciology. 2013; 53: 105–113.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng B., Vihma T., Pirazzini R., Granskog M.A. Modelling of superimposed ice formation during the spring snowmelt period in the Baltic Sea. Annals of Glaciology. 2006; 44: 139–146.
   Google Scholar
• Cheng B., Vihma T., Rontu L., Kontu A., Kheyrollah Pour H., Duguay C., Pulliainen J. Evolution of snow and ice temperature, thickness and energy balance in Lake Orajärvi, northern Finland. Tellus A. 2014; 66: 21564. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v66.21564.
   Google Scholar
• Cheng B., Zhang Z., Vihma T., Johansson M., Bian L., Li Z., Wu H. Model experiments on snow and ice thermodynamics in the Arctic Ocean with CHINARE 2003 data. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 2008; 113: 09020. doi: 10.1029/2007JC004654.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Comiso J.C., Parkinson C.L., Gersten R., Stock L. Accelerated decline in the Arctic sea ice cover. Geophysical Research Letters. 2008; 35: 01703. doi: 10.1029/2007GL031972.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cottier F.R., Nilsen F., Inall M.E., Gerland S., Tverberg V., Svendsen H. Wintertime warming of an Arctic shelf in response to largescale atmospheric circulation. Geophysical Research Letters. 2007; 34: 10607. doi: 10.1029/2007GL029948.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cottier F.R., Tverberg V., Inall M.E., Svendsen H., Nilsen F., Griffiths C. Water mass modification in an Arctic fjord through cross-shelf exchange: the seasonal hydrography of Kongsfjorden, Svalbard. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 2005; 110: 12005. doi: 10.1029/2004JC002757.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eicken H., Lange M.A., Hubberten H.-W., Wadhams P. Characteristics and distribution patterns of snow and meteoric ice in the Weddell Sea and their contribution to the mass balance of sea ice. Annales Geophysicae. 1994; 12: 80–93.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flato G.M., Brown R.D. Variability and climate sensitivity of landfast Arctic sea ice. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 1996; 101: 25767–25777.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerland S., Gascard J.C., Ivanov B., Nielsen C.P., Nilsen E., Pavlova O., Leu E., Tverberg V., Barrault S. Azzolini R. Fast ice evolution in Kongsfjorden compared with other Svalbard fjords. Extended abstract. 8th Ny-Ålesund seminar. 16–17 October 2007. Cambridge, UK. Polarnet Technical Report. 2007; Rome: Earth and Environment Department, National Research Council. 44–46.
   Google Scholar
• Gerland S., Haas C., Nicolaus M., Winther J.-G. Seasonal development of structure and optical surface properties of fast-ice in Kongsfjorden, Svalbard. Reports on Polar and Marine Research. 2004; 492: 26–34.
   Google Scholar
• Gerland S., Hall R. Variability of fast-ice thickness in Spitsbergen fjords. Annals of Glaciology. 2006; 44: 231–239.
   Google Scholar
• Gerland S., Renner A.H.H. Sea-ice mass balance monitoring in an Arctic fjord. Annals of Glaciology. 2007; 46: 435–442.
   Google Scholar
• Gerland S., Renner A.H.H., Godtliebsen F., Divine D., Løyning T.B. Decrease of sea ice thickness at Hopen, Barents Sea, during 1966–2007. Geophysical Research Letters. 2008; 35: 06501. doi: 10.1029/2007GL032716.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerland S., Winther J.-G., Ørbæk J.B., Ivanov B.V. Physical properties, spectral reflectance and thickness development of first year fast ice in Kongsfjorden, Svalbard. Polar Research. 1999; 18: 275–282.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Granskog M.A., Kaartokallio H., Shirasawa K. Nutrient status of Baltic Sea ice: evidence for control by snow-ice formation, ice permeability, and ice algae. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 2003; 108: 3253. doi: 10.1029/2002JC001386.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Granskog M.A., Vihma T., Pirazzini R., Cheng B. Superimposed ice formation and surface energy fluxes on sea ice during the spring melt–freeze period in the Baltic Sea. Journal of Glaciology. 2006; 52: 119–127.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haas C., Thomas D.N., Bareiss J. Surface properties and processes of perennial Antarctic sea ice in summer. Journal of Glaciology. 2001; 47: 613–625.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansen E., Gerland S., Granskog M.A., Pavlova O., Renner A.H.H., Haapala J., Løyning T.B., Tschudi M. Thinning of Arctic sea ice observed in Fram Strait: 1990–2011. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 2013; 118: 5202–5221.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holt B., Digby S.A. Processes and imagery of first-year fast sea ice during the melt season. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 1985; 90: 5045–5062.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hudson S.R., Granskog M.A., Sundfjord A., Randelhoff A., Renner A.H.H., Divine D.V. Energy budget of first-year Arctic sea ice in advanced stages of melt. Geophysical Research Letters. 2013; 40: 2679–2683.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeffries M.O., Worby A.P., Morris K., Weeks W.F. Seasonal variations in the properties and structural composition of sea ice and snow cover in the Bellingshausen and Amundsen seas, Antarctica. Journal of Glaciology. 1997; 43: 138–151.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kattsov V.M., Källén E., Cattle H., Christensen J., Drange H., Hanssen-Bauer I., Jóhannesen T., Karol I., Räisänen J., Svensson G., Vavulin S. Symon C., Arris L., Heal B. Chapter 4. Future climate change: modeling and scenarios for the Arctic. Arctic climate impact assessment. 2005; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 100–150.
   Google Scholar
• Kawamura T., Ohshima K.I., Takizawa T., Ushio S. Physical, structural, and isotopic characteristics and growth processes of fast sea ice in Lutzow-Holm Bay, Antarctica. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 1997; 102: 3345–3355.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kawamura T., Shirasawa K., Ishikawa N., Lindfors A., Rasmus K., Granskog M.A., Ehn J., Leppäranta M., Martma T., Vaikmë R. Time series observations of the structure and properties of brackish ice in the Gulf of Finland, the Baltic Sea. Annals of Glaciology. 2001; 33: 1–4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kwok R., Rothrock D.A. Decline in Arctic sea ice thickness from submarine and ICESat records: 1958–2008. Geophysical Research Letters. 2009; 36: 15501. doi: 10.1029/2009GL039035.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kwok R., Untersteiner N. The thinning of Arctic sea ice. Physics Today. 2011; 64: 36–41.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Launiainen J., Cheng B. Modelling of ice thermo-dynamics in natural water bodies. Cold Regions Science and Technology. 1998; 27: 153–178.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laxon S.W., Giles K.A., Ridout A.L., Wingham D.J., Willatt R., Cullen R., Kwok R., Schweiger A., Zhang J., Haas C., Hendricks S., Krishfield R., Kurtz N., Farrell S., Davidson M. CryoSat-2 estimates of Arctic sea ice thickness and volume. Geophysical Research Letters. 2013; 40: 732–737.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leppäranta M. A growth model for black ice, snow ice and snow thickness in sub-Antarctic basins. Nordic Hydrology. 1983; 14: 59–70.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maksym T., Jeffries M.O. A one-dimensional percolation model of flooding and snow ice formation on Antarctic sea ice. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 2000; 105: 26313–26331.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maksym T., Markus T. Antarctic sea ice thickness and snow-to-ice conversion from atmospheric reanalysis and passive microwave snow depth. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 2008; 113: 02S12. doi: 10.1029/2006JC004085.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maslanik J., Stroeve J., Fowler C., Emery W. Distribution and trends in Arctic sea ice age through spring 2011. Geophysical Research Letters. 2011; 38: 13502. doi: 10.1029/2011GL047735.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Massom R.A., Eicken H., Haas C., Jeffries M.O., Drinkwater M.R., Sturm M., Worby A.P., Wu X., Lytle V.I., Ushio S., Morris K., Reid P.A., Warren S.G., Allison I. Snow on Antarctic sea ice. Reviews of Geophysics. 2001; 39: 413–445.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maykut G.A. Large-scale heat exchange and ice production in the central Arctic. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 1982; 87: 7971–7984.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maykut G.A., Untersteiner N. Some results from a time dependent thermodynamic model of sea ice. Journal of Geophysical Research. 1971; 76: 1550–1575.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maykut G.A., McPhee M.G. Solar heating of the Arctic mixed layer. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 1995; 97: 24691–24703.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier W.N., Hovelsrud G.K., van Oort B.E.H., Key J.R., Kovacs K.M., Michel C., Haas C., Granskog M.A., Gerland S., Perovich D.K., Makshtas A., Reist J.D. Arctic sea ice in transformation: a review of recent observed changes and impacts on biology and human activity. Reviews of Geophysics. 2014; 52: 185–217.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nghiem S.V., Rigor I.G., Perovich D.K., Clemente-Colón P., Weatherly J.W., Neumann G. Rapid reduction of Arctic perennial sea ice. Geophysical Research Letters. 2007; 34: 19504. doi: 10.1029/2007GL031138.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicolaus M., Haas C., Bareiss J. Observations of superimposed ice formation at melt-onset on fast ice on Kongsfjorden, Svalbard. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth. 2003; 28: 1241–1248.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicolaus M., Haas C., Bareiss J., Willmes S. A model study of differences of snow thinning on Arctic and Antarctic first-year sea ice during spring and summer. Annals of Glaciology. 2006; 44: 147–153.
   Google Scholar
• Nicolaus M., Kaltein C., Maslanik J., Hendricks S. Changes in Arctic sea ice result in increasing light transmittance and absorption. Geophysical Research Letters. 2012; 39: 24501. doi: 10.1029/2012GL053738.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Øyvind N., Przybylak R., Ogilvie A.E.J., Isaksen K. Long-term temperature trends and variability on Spitsbergen: the extended Svalbard airport temperature series, 1898–2012. Polar Research. 2014; 33: 21349. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v33.21349.
   Google Scholar
• Palosuo E. The Gulf of Bothnia in winter (II). Freezing and ice forms. Merentutkimuslaitoksen Julkais. 1963; 209
   Google Scholar
• Pavlov A.K., Tverberg V., Ivanov B.V., Nilsen F., Falk-Petersen S., Granskog M.A. Warming of Atlantic water in two west Spitsbergen fjords over the last century (1912–2009). Polar Research. 2013; 32: 11206. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v32i0.11206.
   Google Scholar
• Pavlova O., Gerland S., Moe B. Long-term monitoring of Kongsfjorden fast ice. 2011. Paper presented at the 10th Ny-Ålesund Seminar. 25–26 October, Kjeller, Norway.
   Google Scholar
• Pedersen C.A., Roeckner E., Lüthje M., Winther J.-G. A new sea ice albedo scheme including melt ponds for ECHAM5 general circulation model. Journal of Geophysical Research—Atmospheres. 2009; 14: 08101. doi: 10.1029/2008JD010440.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perovich D.K., Elder B. Estimates of ocean heat flux at SHEBA. Geophysical Research Letters. 2002; 29: 1344. doi: 10.1029/2001GL014171.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perovich D.K., Light B., Eicken H., Jones K.F., Runciman K., Nghiem S.V. Increasing solar heating of the Arctic Ocean and adjacent seas, 1979–2005: attribution and role in the ice-albedo feedback. Geophysical Research Letters. 2007; 34: 19505. doi: 10.1029/2007GL031480.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polyakov I.V., Timokhov L.A., Alexeev V.A., Bacon S., Dmitrenko I.A., Fortier L., Frolov I.E., Gascard J.-C., Hansen E., Ivanov V.V., Laxon S., Mauritzen C., Perovich D.K., Shimada K., Simmons H.L., Sokolov V.T., Steele M., Toole J. Arctic Ocean warming contributes to reduced polar ice cap. Journal of Physical Oceanography. 2010; 40: 2743–2756.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pringle D.J., Eicken H., Trodahl H.J., Backstrom L.G.E. Thermal conductivity of landfast Antarctic and Arctic sea ice. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 2007; 112: 04017. doi: 10.1029/2006JC003641.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Renner A.H.H., Gerland S., Haas C., Spreen G., Beckers J.F., Hansen E., Nicolaus M., Goodwin H. Evidence of Arctic sea ice thinning from direct observations. Geophysical Research Letters. 2014; 41: 5029–5036.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saloranta T.M. Modeling the evolution of snow, snow ice and ice in the Baltic Sea. Tellus A. 2000; 52: 93–108.
   Google Scholar
• Screen J.A., Simmonds I. The central role of diminishing sea ice in recent Arctic temperature amplification. Nature. 2010; 464: 1334–1337.
   Google Scholar
• Semmler T., Cheng B., Yang Y., Rontu L. Snow and ice on Bear Lake (Alaska)—sensitivity experiments with two lake ice models. Tellus A. 2012; 64: 17339. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.17339.
   Google Scholar
• Shirasawa K., Leppäranta M., Saloranta T., Kawamura T., Polomoshnov A., Surkov G. The thickness of coastal fast ice in the Sea of Okhotsk. Cold Regions Science and Technology. 2005; 42: 25–40.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stocker T.F., Qin D., Plattner G.-K., Tignor M., Allen S.K, Boschung J., Nauels A., Xia Y., Bex V., Midgley P.M. Climate Change 2013. The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2013; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sturm M., Holmgren J., König M., Morris K. The thermal conductivity of seasonal snow. Journal of Glaciology. 1997; 43: 26–41.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Svendsen H., Beszczynsk-Møller A., Hagen J.O., Lefauconnier B., Tverberg V., Gerland S., Ørbæk J.B., Bischof K., Papucci C., Zajaczkowski M., Azzolini R., Bruland O., Wiencke C., Winther J.-G., Dallmann W. The physical environment of Kongsfjorden–Krossfjorden, an Arctic fjord system in Svalbard. Polar Research. 2002; 21: 133–166.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tverberg V., Nilsen E., Goszczko I., Cottier F., Svendsen H., Gerland S. Azzolini R. The warm winter temperature of 2006 and 2007 in the Kongsfjorden water masses compared to historical data. Extended abstract. 8th Ny-Ålesund Seminar. 16–17 October 2007. Cambridge, UK. Polarnet Technical Report. 2007; Rome: Earth and Environment Department, National Research Council. 40–43.
   Google Scholar
• Vihma T., Mattila O.-P., Pirazzini R., Johansson M.M. Spatial and temporal variability in summer snow pack in Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica. The Cryosphere. 2011; 5: 187–201.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vihma T., Uotila J., Cheng B., Launiainen J. Surface heat budget over the Weddell Sea: buoy results and comparisons with large-scale models. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 2002; 107: 3013. doi: 10.1029/2000JC000372.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang C., Shi L., Gerland S., Granskog M.A., Renner A.H.H., Li Z., Hansen E., Martma T. Spring sea ice evolution in Rijpfjorden (80°N), Svalbard, from in-situ measurements and ice mass balance buoy (IMB) data. Annals of Glaciology. 2013; 53: 253–260.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang Y., Cheng B., Kourzeneva E., Semmler T., Rontu L., Leppäranta M., Shirasawa K., Li Z. Modelling experiments on air–snow–ice interactions over Kilpisjärvi, a lake in northern Finland. Boreal Environment Research. 2013; 18: 341–358.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang Y., Leppäranta M., Cheng B., Li Z. Numerical modelling of snow and ice thicknesses in Lake Vanajavesi, Finland. Tellus A. 2012; 64: 17202. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v64i0.17202.
   Google Scholar
• Ye H., Cohen J., Rawlines M. Discrimination of solid from liquid precipitation over Northern Eurasia using surface atmospheric condition. Journal of Hydrometeorology. 2013; 14: 1345–1355.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhuravskiy D., Ivanov B., Pavlov A. Ice conditions at Gronfjorden Bay, Svalbard, from 1974 to 2008. Polar Geography. 2012; 35: 169–176.
   Google Scholar