Late winter biogeochemical conditions under sea ice in the Canadian High Arctic

References

• Anderson L.G., Jones E.P. Measurements of total alkalinity, calcium, and sulphate in natural sea ice. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 1985; 90: 9194–9198.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arrigo K.R., Perovich D.K., Pickart R.S., Borwn Z.W., van Dijken G.L., Lowry K.E., Mills M.M., Palmer M.A., Balch W.M., Bahr F., Bates N.R., Benitez-Nelson C., Bowler B., Brownlee E., Ehn J.K., Frey K.E., Garley R., Laney S.R., Lubelczyk L., Mathis J., Matsuoka A., Micthell B.G., Moore G.W.K., Ortega-Retuerta E., Pal S., Polashenski C.M., Reynolds R.A., Schieber B., Sosik H.M., Stephens M., Swift J.H. Massive phytoplankton blooms under Arctic sea ice. Science. 2012; 336: 1408. [PubMed Abstract].
   Google Scholar
• Aubinet M., Grelle A., Ibrom A., Rannik Ü., Moncrieff J., Foken T., Kowalski A.S., Martin P.H., Berbigier P., Bernhofer C., Clement R., Elbers J., Granier A., Grunwald T., Morgenstern K., Pilegaard K., Rebmann C, Snijders W., Valentini R., Vesala T. Estimates of the annual net carbon and water exchange of forests: the EUROFLUX methodology. Advances in Ecology Research. 2000; 30: 113–175.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Azetsu-Scott K., Clarke A., Falkner K., Hamilton J., Jones E.P., Lee C., Petrie B., Prinsenberg S., Starr M., Yeats P. Calcium carbonate saturation states in the waters of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and the Labrador Sea. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 2010; 115: 11021. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2009JC005917.
   Google Scholar
• Bates N.R., Mathis J.T. The Arctic Ocean marine carbon cycle: evaluation of air–sea CO2 exchanges, ocean acidification impacts and potential feedbacks. Biogeosciences. 2009; 6: 2433–2459.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bates N.R., Mathis J.T., Cooper L.W. Ocean acidification and biologically induced seasonality of the carbonate mineral saturation states in the western Arctic Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 2009; 114: 11007. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008JC004862.
   Google Scholar
• Brewer P.G., Riley J.P. The automatic determination of nitrate in sea water. Deep-Sea Research. 1965; 12: 765–772.
   Google Scholar
• Brown K.A, Miller L.A., Mundy C.J., Papakyriakou T., Francois R., Gosselin M., Carnat G., Swystun K., Tortell P.D. Inorganic carbon system dynamics in landfast Arctic sea ice during the early-melt period: spring sea ice inorganic carbon system. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 2015; 120: 3542–3566.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carmack E., Wassmann P. Food webs and physical–biological coupling on pan-Arctic shelves: unifying concepts and comprehensive perspectives. Progress in Oceanography. 2006; 71: 446–477.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chierici M., Fransson A. Calcium carbonate saturation in the surface water of the Arctic Ocean: undersaturation in freshwater influenced shelves. Biogeosciences. 2009; 6: 2421–2432.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Comiso J.C. Thomas D.N., Dieckmann G.S. Large-scale characteristics and variability of the global sea ice cover. Sea ice: an introduction to its physics, biology, chemistry, and geology. 2003; Oxford: Blackwell Science. 112–142.
   Google Scholar
• Cota G.F., Prinsenberg S.J., Bennett E.B., Loder J.W., Lewis M.R., Anning J.L., Watson N.H.F., Harris L.R. Nutrient fluxes during extended blooms of Arctic ice algae. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 1987; 92: 1951–1962.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dickson A.G. Standard potential of the reaction: AgCl(s)+1/2H2(g)=Ag(s)+HCl(aq), and the standard acidity constant of the ion in synthetic sea water from 273.15 to 318.15 K. Journal of Chemical Thermodynamics. 1990; 22: 113–127.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dickson A.G., Millero F.J. A comparison of the equilibrium constants for the dissociation of carbonic acid in seawater media. Deep-Sea Research. 1987; 34: 1733–1743.
   Google Scholar
• Dickson A.G., Sabine C.L., Christian J.R. Guide to best practices for ocean CO₂ measurements. PICES Special Publication 3. 2007; Oak Ridge, TN: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, US Department of Energy.
   Google Scholar
• Dlugokencky E.J., Lang P.M., Masarie K.A., Crotwell A.M., Crotwell M.J. Atmospheric carbon dioxide dry air mole fractions from the NOAA ESRL Carbon Cycle Cooperative Global Air Sampling Network, 1968–2014. Version 2015-08-03. Boulder, CO: Earth System Research Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2015. Accessed on the internet at ftp://aftp.cmdl.noaa.gov/data/trace_gases/co2/flask/surface/ [Copyeditor: this does not require an internet access date].
   Google Scholar
• Eilertsen H.C., Taasen J.P., Weslawski J.M. Phytoplankton studies in the fjords of west Spitzbergen: physical environment and production in spring and summer. Journal of Plankton Research. 1989; 11: 1245–1260.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Else B.G.T., Galley R.J., Lansard B., Barber D.G., Brown K., Miller L.A., Mucci A., Papakyriakou T.N., Tremblay J.-E., Rysgaard S. Further observations of a decreasing atmospheric CO2 uptake capacity in the Canada Basin (Arctic Ocean) due to sea ice loss. Geophysical Research Letters. 2013; 40: 1132–1137.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Else B.G.T., Papakyriakou T.N., Galley R.J., Drennan W.M., Miller L.A., Thomas H. Wintertime CO2 fluxes in an Arctic polynya using eddy covariance: evidence for enhanced air–sea gas transfer during ice formation. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 2011; 116 C00G03, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010JC006760.
   Google Scholar
• Findlay H.S., Tyrrell T., Bellerby R.G.J., Merico A., Skjelvan I. Carbon and nutrient mixed layer dynamics in the Norwegian Sea. Biogeosciences. 2008; 5: 1395–1410.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flato G.M., Brown R.D. Variability and climate sensitivity of landfast Arctic sea ice. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 1996; 101: 25767–25777.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilstad M., Sakshaug E. Growth rates of ten diatom species from the Barents Sea at different irradiances and day lengths. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 1990; 64: 169–173.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grasshoff H. Methods of sea water analysis. 1976; Basel: Verlag Chemie.
   Google Scholar
• Jones E.P., Anderson L.G. On the origin of the chemical properties of the Arctic Ocean halocline. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 1986; 91: 10759–10767.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones E.P., Anderson L.G., Swift J.H. Distribution of Atlantic and Pacific waters in the upper Arctic Ocean: implications for circulation. Geophysical Research Letters. 1998; 25: 765–768.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Junge K., Eicken H., Deming J.W. Bacterial activity at −2 to −20°C in the Arctic wintertime sea ice. Applied Environmental Microbiology. 2004; 70: 550–557. [PubMed Abstract] [PubMed CentralFull Text].
   Google Scholar
• Kinney P., Arhelger M.E., Burrell D.C. Chemical characteristics of water masses in the Amerasian Basin of the Arctic Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research. 1970; 75: 4097–4104.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirkwood D.S. Simultaneous determination of selected nutrients in sea water. Report CM 1989/C:29. 1989; Copenhagen: International Council for the Exploration of the Seas.
   Google Scholar
• Knap A.H., Michaels A., Close A.R., Ducklow H., Dickson A.G. Protocols for the Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS) core measurements. JGOFS Report 19. 1996; Bremerhaven: Alfred Wegener Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Krishfield R., Toole J., Proshutinsky A., Timmermans M.-L. Automated ice-tethered profilers for seawater observations under pack ice in all seasons. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology. 2008; 25: 2091–2095.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lansard B., Mucci A., Miller L.A., Macdonald R.W., Gratton Y. Seasonal variability of water mass distribution in the southeastern Beaufort Sea determined by total alkalinity and δ18O. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 2012; 117 C03003, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011JC007299.
   Google Scholar
• Lee S., Whiteledge T.E., Kang S.-H. Carbon uptake rates of sea ice algae and phytoplankton under different light intensities in a landfast sea ice zone, Barrow, Alaska. Arctic. 2008; 61: 281–291.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lovejoy C., Vincent W.F., Bonilla S., Roy S., Martineau M.-J., Terrado R., Potvin M., Massana R., Pedrós-Alió C. Distribution, phylogeny, and growth of cold-adapted picoprasinophytes in Arctic seas. Journal of Phycology. 2007; 43: 78–89.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macdonald R.W., Paton D.W., Carmack E.C., Omstedt A. The freshwater budget and under-ice spreading of Mackenzie River water in the Canadian Beaufort Sea based on salinity and 18O/16O measurements in water and ice. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 1995; 100: 895–919.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mantoura R.F.C., Woodward E.M.S. Optimization of the indophenol blue method for the automated determination of ammonia in estuarine waters. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science. 1983; 17: 219–224.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Massman W.J. The attenuation of concentration fluctuations in turbulent flow through a tube. Journal of Geophysical Research—Atmospheres. 1991; 96: 15269–15273.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mathis J.T., Pickart R.S., Byrne R.H., McNeil C.L., Moore G.W.K., Juranek L.W., Liu X., Ma J., Easley R.A., Elliot M.M., Cross J.N., Reisdorph S.C., Bahr F., Morison J., Lichendorf T., Feely R.A. Storm-induced upwelling of high pCO2 waters onto the continental shelf of the western Arctic Ocean and implications for carbonate mineral saturation states. Geophysical Research Letters. 2012; 39 L07606, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2012GL051574.
   Google Scholar
• Mathis J.T., Pickart R.S., Hansell D.A., Kadko D., Bates N.R. Eddy transport of organic carbon and nutrients from the Chukchi Shelf: impact on the upper halocline of the western Arctic Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 2007; 112: 05011. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2006JC003899.
   Google Scholar
• Mehrbach C., Culberson C.H., Hawley J.E., Pytkowicz R.M. Measurements of the apparent dissociation constants of carbonic acid in seawater at atmospheric pressure. Limnology and Oceanography. 1973; 18: 897–907.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller L.A., Chierici M., Johannessen T., Noji T.T., Rey F., Skjelvan I. Seasonal dissolved inorganic carbon variations in the Greenland Sea and implications for atmospheric CO2 exchange. Deep-Sea Research Part II. 1999; 46: 1473–1496.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller L.A., Papakyriakou T.N., Collins R.E., Deming J.W., Ehn J.K., Macdonald R.W., Mucci A., Owens O., Raudsepp M., Sutherland N. Carbon dynamics in sea ice: a winter flux time series. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 2011; 116: 02028. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2009JC006058.
   Google Scholar
• Miller L.A., Yager P.L., Erickson K.A., Amiel D., Bâcle J., Cochran J.K., Garneau M.-È., Gosselin M., Hirschberg D.J., Klein B., LeBlanc B., Miller W.L. Carbon distributions and fluxes in the North Water, 1998 and 1999. Deep-Sea Research Part II. 2002; 49: 5151–5170.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore C.J. Frequency response corrections for eddy correlation systems. Boundary-Layer Meteorology. 1986; 37: 17–35.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore R.M., Lowings M.G., Tan F.C. Geochemical profiles in the central Arctic Ocean: their relation to freezing and shallow circulation. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 1983; 88: 2667–2674.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mundy C.J., Gosselin M., Ehn J., Gratton Y., Rossnagel A., Barber D.G., Martin J., Tremblay J.-É., Palmer M., Arrigo K.R., Darnis G., Fortier L., Else B., Papakyriakou T. Contribution of under-ice primary production to an ice-edge upwelling phytoplankton bloom in the Canadian Beaufort Sea. Geophysical Research Letters. 2009; 36: 17601. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2009GL038837.
   Google Scholar
• Mundy C.J., Gosselin M., Gratton Y., Brown K., Galindo V., Campbell K., Levasseur M., Barber D., Papakyriakou T., Bélanger S. Role of environmental factors on phytoplankton bloom initiation under landfast sea ice in Resolute Passage, Canada. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 2014; 487: 39–49.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nguyen A.T., Menemenlis D., Kwok R. Arctic ice–ocean simulation with optimized model parameters: approach and assessment. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 2011; 116: 04025. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010JC006573.
   Google Scholar
• Olafsson J., Olafsdottir S.R., Benoit-Cattin A., Danielsen M., Arnarson T.S., Takahashi T. Rate of Iceland Sea acidification from time series measurements. Biogeosciences. 2009; 6: 2661–2668.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orr J.C., Jutterström S., Bopp L., Anderson L.G., Bates N.R., Cadule P., Fabry V.J., Frölicker T., Heinze C., Jones E.P., Joos F., Key R.M., Lenton A., Maier-Reimer E., Olsen A., Segschneider J., Skjelvan I., Steinacher M., Swingedouw D., Tjiptura J 2010. Winter versus summer onset of undersaturation in the Arctic Ocean. Paper presented at the International Polar Year Oslo Science Conference. 8–12 June 2010, Oslo, Norway.
   Google Scholar
• Orr J.C., Jutterström S., Bopp L., Anderson L.G., Cadule P., Fabry V.J., Frölicher T., Jones E.P., Joos F., Lenton A., Maier-Reimer E., Segschneider J., Steinacher M., Swingedouw D. Amplified acidification in the Arctic ocean. IOP Conference Series Earth and Environmental Science. 2009; 6 article no. 462009, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1307/6/6/462009.
   Google Scholar
• Papakyriakou T., Miller L. Springtime CO2 exchange over seasonal sea ice in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Annuals of Glaciology. 2011; 52: 215–224.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perovich D.K., Richter-Menge J.A., Jones K.F., Light B. Sunlight, water and ice: extreme Arctic sea ice melt during summer of 2007. Geophysical Research Letters. 2008; 35 L11501, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008GL034007.
   Google Scholar
• Pierrot D., Lewis E., Wallace D.W.R. MS Excel program developed for CO₂ system calculations. ORNL/CDIAC-105a. 2006; Oak Ridge, TN: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, US Department of Energy.
   Google Scholar
• Popova E.E., Yool A., Aksenov Y., Coward A.C., Anderson T.R. Regional variability of acidification in the Arctic: a sea of contrasts. Biogeosciences. 2014; 11: 293–308.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Popova E.E., Yool A., Coward A.C., Aksenov Y.K., Alderson S.G., de Cuevas B.A., Anderson T.R. Control of primary production in the Arctic by nutrients and light: insights from a high resolution ocean general circulation model. Biogeosciences. 2010; 7: 3569–359.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prinsenberg S.J., Ingram R.G. Under-ice physical oceanography processes. Journal of Marine Systems. 1991; 2: 143–152.
   Google Scholar
• Proshutinsky A.Y., Johnson M. Two regimes of the Arctic's circulation from ocean models with ice and contaminants. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2001; 43: 61–70. [PubMed Abstract].
   Google Scholar
• Rysgaard S., Glud R.N., Sejr M.K., Bendtsen J., Christensen P.B. Inorganic carbon transport during sea ice growth and decay: a carbon pump in polar seas. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 2007; 112 C03016, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2006JC003572.
   Google Scholar
• Semiletov I., Makshtas A., Akasofu S.-I., Andreas E.L. Atmospheric CO2 balance: the role of Arctic sea ice. Geophysical Research Letters. 2004; 31 L05121, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2003GL017996.
   Google Scholar
• Shadwick E.H., Thomas H., Chierici M., Else B., Fransson A., Michel C., Miller L.A., Mucci A., Niemi A., Papakyriakou T.N., Tremblay J.-É. Seasonal variability of the inorganic carbon system in the Amundsen Gulf region of the southeastern Beaufort Sea. Limnology and Oceanography. 2011; 56: 303–322.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shadwick E.H., Trull T.W., Thomas H., Gibson J.A.E. Vulnerability of polar oceans to anthropogenic acidification: comparison of Arctic and Antarctic seasonal cycles. Scientific Reports. 2013; 3: 2339–2346. [PubMed Abstract] [PubMed CentralFull Text].
   Google Scholar
• Skjelvan I., Falck E., Rey F., Kringstad S.B. Inorganic carbon time series at Ocean Weather Station M in the Norwegian Sea. Biogeosciences. 2008; 5: 549–560.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stein R., Macdonald R.W. The organic carbon cycle in the Arctic Ocean. 2004; Berlin: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Tanner C.B., Thurtell G.W. Anemoclinometer measurements of reynolds stress and heat transport in the atmospheric surface layer. Research and Development Technical Report ECOM 66-G22-F to the US Army Electronics Command. 1969; Madison: Department of Soil Science, University of Wisconsin.
   Google Scholar
• Tremblay J.-É., Simpson K., Martin J., Miller L., Gratton Y., Barber D., Price N.M. Vertical stability and the annual dynamics of nutrients and chlorophyll fluorescence in the coastal, southeast Beaufort Sea. Geophysical Research Letters. 2008; 113 C07S90, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2007JC004547.
   Google Scholar
• Toole J.M., Timmermans M.-L., Perovich D.K., Krishfield R.A., Proshutinsky A., Richter-Menge J.A. Influences of the ocean surface mixed layer and thermohaline stratification on Arctic Sea ice in the central Canada Basin. Journal of Geophysical Research—Oceans. 2010; 115 C10018, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2009JC005660.
   Google Scholar
• Williams W.J., Carmack E.C., Shimada K., Melling H., Aagaard K., Macdonald R.W., Ingram R.G. Joint effects of wind and ice motion in forcing upwelling in Mackenzie Trough, Beaufort Sea. Continental Shelf Research. 2006; 26: 2352–2366.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodward E.M.S., Rees A.P. Nutrient distributions in an anticyclonic eddy in the northeast Atlantic Ocean, with reference to nanomolar ammonium concentrations. Deep-Sea Research Part II. 2001; 48: 775–793.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zemmelink H.J., Delille B., Tison J.L., Hinsta E.J., Houghton L., Dacey J.W.H. CO2 deposition over the multi-year ice of the western Weddell Sea. Geophysical Research Letters. 2006; 33 L13606, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2006GL026320.
   Google Scholar
• Zhang J.-Z., Chi J. Automated analysis of nanomolar concentrations of phosphate in natural waters with liquid waveguide. Environmental Science and Technology. 2002; 36: 1048–1053. [PubMed Abstract].
   Google Scholar