The non-linear influence of wind-speed variability on gas transfer in lakes

References

• Abramowitz, M. and Stegun, I. A., eds. 1970. Handbook of mathematical functions with formulas, graphs and mathematical tables. New York: Dover, 1046 p.
   Google Scholar
• Bossard, P. and Gächter, R. 1981. Methan- und Sauer-stoffhaushalt im mesotrophen Lungernsee. Schweiz. Z. HydroL 43, 219–252.
   Google Scholar
• Boutin, J. and Etcheto, J. 1991. Intrinsic error in the air-sea CO2 exchange coefficient resulting from the use of satellite wind speeds. Tellus 43B, 236–246.
   Google Scholar
• Broecker, H. C. and Siems, W. 1984. The role of bubbles for gas transfer from water to air at higher windspeeds. Experiments in the wind-wave facility in Hamburg. In: Gas transfer at water surfaces (W. Brutsaert and G. H. Jirka, eds.), 229–236. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publ. Co.
   Google Scholar
• Broecker, H. C., Petermann, J. and Siems, W. 1978. The influence of wind on CO2-exchange in a wind-wave tunnel, including the effects of monolayers. J. Mar. Res. 36, 595–610.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broecker, W. S. and Peng, T.-H. 1974. Gas exchange rates between air and sea. Tellus 26, 21–35.
   Google Scholar
• Conradsen, K., Nielsen, L. B. and Prahm, L. P. 1984. Review of Weibull statistics for estimation of wind speed distributions. J. Appl MeteoroL 23, 1173–1183.
   Google Scholar
• Davenport, A. G. 1967. The dependence of wind loads on meteorological parameters. Proc. Int. Res. Sem. on Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures. Ottawa, 19–82.
   Google Scholar
• Downing, A. L. and Truesdale, G. A. 1955. Some factors affecting the rate of solution of oxygen in water. J. Appl Chem. 5, 570–581.
   Google Scholar
• Emerson, S. R. 1975. Gas exchange rates in small Canadian Shield lakes. LimnoL Oceanogr. 20, 754–761.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erickson, D. J., III 1989. Variations in the global air-sea transfer velocity field of CO2. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 3, 37–41.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erickson, D. J., III and Taylor, J. A. 1989. Non-Weibull behaviour observed in a model-generated global surface wind field frequency distribution. J. Geophys. Res. 94C, 12693–12698.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Etcheto, J. and Merlivat, L. 1988. Satellite determination of the carbon dioxide exchange coefficient at the ocean-atmosphere interface: a first step. J. Geophys. Res. 93C, 15669–15678.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Etcheto, J., Boutin, J. and Merlivat, L. 1991. Seasonal variation of the CO2 exchange coefficient over the global ocean using satellite wind speed measurements. Tellus 43B, 247–255.
   Google Scholar
• Hartmann, B. and Hammond, D. E. 1984. Gas exchange rates across the sediment-water and air-water interfaces in South San Francisco Bay. J. Geophys. Res. 89C, 3593–3603.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hasse, L. 1990. On the mechanism of gas exchange at the air-sea interface. Tellus 42B, 250–253.
   Google Scholar
• Hasse, L. and Liss, P. S. 1980. Gas exchange across the air-sea interface. Tellus 32, 470–481.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hennessey, J. P., Jr. 1977. Some aspects of wind power statistics. J. Appl Meteorol. 16, 119–128.
   Google Scholar
• Hoover, T. E. and Berkshire, D. C. 1969. Effects of hydration on carbon dioxide exchange across an air-water interface. J. Geophys. Res. 74, 456–464.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Imboden, D. M., Lemmin, U., Joller, T. and Schurter, M. 1983. Mixing processes in lakes: mechanisms and ecological relevance. Schweiz. Z. HydroL 45, 11–44.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Imboden, D. M., Stotz, B. and Wiiest, A. 1988. Hypo-limnic mixing in a deep alpine lake and the role of a storm event. Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 23, 67–73.
   Google Scholar
• Inoue, Y. H. and Sugimura, Y. 1992. Variations and distributions of CO2 in and over the equatorial Pacific during the period from the 1986/88 El Nifio event to the 1988/89 La Nina event. Tellus 44B, 1–22.
   Google Scholar
• Jähne, B., Miinnich, K. O. and Siegenthaler, U. 1979. Measurements of gas exchange and momentum transfer in a circular wind-water tunnel. Tellus 31, 321–329.
   Google Scholar
• Jähne, B., Huber, W., Dutzi, A., Wais, T. and Ilmberger, J. 1984a. Wind/wave-tunnel experiment on the Schmidt number and wave field dependence of air/ water gas exchange. In: Gas transfer at water surfaces (W. Brutsaert and G. H. Jirka, eds.), 303–309. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publ. Co.
   Google Scholar
• Jähne, B., Fischer, K. H., Ilmberger, J., Libner, P., Weiss, W., Imboden, D., Lemmin, U. and Jaquet, J. M. 1984b. Parameterization of air/lake gas exchange. In: Gas transfer at water surfaces (W. Brutsaert and G. H. Jirka, eds.), 459–466. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publ. Co.
   Google Scholar
• Jähne, B., Wais, T., Memery, L., Caulliez, G., Merlivat, L., Miinnich, K. O. and Coantic, M. 1985. He and Rn gas exchange experiments in the large wind-wave facility of IMST. J. Geophys. Res. 90C, 11989–11997.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jane, B., Miinnich, K. O., Bösinger, R., Dutzi, A., Huber, W. and Libner, P. 1987. On the parameters influencing air-water gas exchange. J. Geophys. Res. 92C, 1937–1949.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Justus, C. G., Hargraves, W. R. and Yalcin, A. 1976. Nationwide assessment of potential output from wind-powered generators. J. Appl. Meteor. 15, 673–678.
   Google Scholar
• Justus, C. G., Hargraves, W. R., Mikhail, A. and Graber, D. 1978. Methods for estimating wind speed frequency distributions. J. Appl MeteoroL 17, 350–353.
   Google Scholar
• Kanwisher, J. 1963. On the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the sea. Deep-Sea Res. 10, 195–207.
   Google Scholar
• Lasenby, D. C. 1975. Development of oxygen deficits in 14 southern Ontario lakes. LimnoL Oceanogr. 20, 993–999.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ledwell, J. J. 1984. The variation of the gas transfer coefficient with molecular diffusivity. In: Gas transfer at water surfaces (W. Brutsaert and G. H. Jirka, eds.), 293–302. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publ. Co.
   Google Scholar
• Lewis, W. K. and Whitman, W. G. 1924. Principles of gas absorption. Indust. Eng. Chem. 16, 1215–1224.
   Google Scholar
• Liss, P. S. 1973. Processes of gas exchange across an air-water interface. Deep-Sea Res. 20, 221–238.
   Google Scholar
• Liss, P. S. 1983. Gas transfer: experiments and geochemical implications. In: Air-sea exchange of gases and particles (P. S. Liss and W. G. N. Slinn, eds.), 241–298. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publ. Co.
   Google Scholar
• Liss, P. S., Balls, P. W., Martinelli, F. N. and Coantic, M. 1981. The effect of evaporation and condensation on gas transfer across an air-water interface. Oceanol. Acta 4, 129–138.
   Google Scholar
• Liss, P. S. and Merlivat, L. 1986. Air-sea gas exchange rates: introduction and synthesis. In: The role of air-sea exchange in geochemical cycling (P. Buat-Ménard, ed.), 113–127. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publ. Co.
   Google Scholar
• Livingstone, D. M. 1988. Einfluss externer physikalischer Faktoren auf das Sauerstoffregime des Aegerisets. PhD dissertation, Univ. Zurich, 273 pp.
   Google Scholar
• Livingstone, D. M. 1991. The diel oxygen cycle in three subalpine Swiss streams. Arch. HydrobioL 120, 457–479.
   Google Scholar
• Livingstone, D. M. and Imboden, D. M. 1989. Annual heat balance and equilibrium temperature of Lake Aegeri, Switzerland. Aquat. Sci. 51, 351–369.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luna, R. E. and Church, H. W. 1974. Estimation of long-term concentrations using a “universal” wind speed distribution. J. Appl Meteor. 13, 910–916.
   Google Scholar
• Mackay, D. 1985. Air/water exchange coefficients. In: Environmental exposure from chemicals, vol. (W. B. Neely and G. E. Blau, eds.), 91–108. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
   Google Scholar
• Marti, D. E. and Imboden, D. M. 1986. Thermische Energieflüsse an der Wasseroberfläche: Beispiel Sempachersee. Schweiz. Z. HydroL 48, 196–229.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merlivat, L. and Memery, L. 1983. Gas exchange across an air-water interface: experimental results and modeling of bubble contribution to transfer. J. Geophys. Res. 88, 707–724.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miinnich, K. O., Clarke, W. B., Fischer, K. H., Floth-mann, D., Kromer, B., Roether, W., Siegenthaler, U., Top, Z. and Weiss, W. 1978. Gas exchange and evaporation studies in a circular wind tunnel, continuous radon-222 measurements at sea, and tritium/ helium-3 measurements in a lake. In: Turbulent fluxes through the sea surface, wave dynamics, and prediction. NATO Conference Series, V, Air-sea interactions, Vol. I (A. Favre and K. Hasselmann, eds.), 151–166. New York: Plenum Press.
   Google Scholar
• Orlenko, L. R. 1968. Wind and its technical aspects. Proc. Symp. on Urban Climates and Building Climatology, Brussels, Vol. II, 37–56. WMO Tech. Note No. 109. WMO No. 225.TP.142.
   Google Scholar
• Orn, C. G. 1980. Die Sauerstoffverhältnisse im Ziirichsee (Untersee) von 1937 bis 1975 und ihre Beeinflussung durch meteorologische Faktoren. Vierteljahrsschr. naturf Ges. Zürich 125, 259–364.
   Google Scholar
• Pavia, E. G. and O'Brien, J. J. 1986. Weibull statistics of wind speed over the ocean. J. Clim. Appl MeteoroL 25, 1324–1332.
   Google Scholar
• Peng, T.-H., Takahashi, T. and Broecker, W. S. 1974. Surface radon measurements in the North Pacific Ocean Station PAPA. J. Geophys. Res. 79, 1772–1780.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peng, T.-H., Broecker, W. S., Mathieu, G. G., Li, Y.-H. and Bainbridge, A. E. 1979. Radon evasion rates in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans as determined during the Geosecs program. J. Geophys. Res. 84C, 2471–2486.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peng, T.-H. and Broecker, W. S. 1980. Gas exchange rates for three closed-basin lakes. LimnoL Oceanogr. 25, 789–796.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quinn, J. A. and Otto, N. C. 1971. Carbon dioxide exchange at the air-sea interface: flux augmentation by chemical reaction. J. Geophys. Res. 76, 1539–1549.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ravenis, J. V. J., 11 1964. Estimating Weibull distribution parameters. Electro-Technology 73, 46–54.
   Google Scholar
• Smethie, W. M., Jr., Takahashi, T., Chipman, D. W. and Ledwell, J. R. 1985. Gas exchange and CO2 flux in the tropical Atlantic Ocean determined from 222Rn and pCO2 measurements. J. Geophys. Res. 90C, 7005–7022.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spitzer, W. S. and Jenkins, W. J. 1989. Rates of vertical mixing, gas exchange and new production: estimates from seasonal gas cycles in the upper ocean near Bermuda. J. Mar. Res. 47,169–196.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart, D. A. and Essenwanger, O. M. 1978. Frequency distribution of wind speed near the surface. J. Appl MeteoroL 17, 1633–1642.
   Google Scholar
• Takle, E. S. and Brown, J. M. 1978. Note on the use of Weibull statistics to characterize wind-speed data. J. Appl MeteoroL J7,556–559.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thorpe, S. A. 1982. On the clouds of bubbles formed by breaking wind-waves in deep water, and their role in air-sea gas transfer. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A 304, 155–210.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsunogai, S. and Tanaka, N. 1980. Flux of oxygen across the air-sea interface as determined by the analysis of dissolved components in sea water. Geochem. J. 14, 227–234.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tuller, S. E. and Brett, A. C. 1984. The characteristics of wind velocity that favor the fitting of a Weibull distribution in wind speed analysis. J. Appl. MeteoroL 23, 124–134.
   Google Scholar
• Upstill-Goddard, R. C., Watson, A. J., Liss, P. S. and Liddicoat, M. I. 1990. Gas transfer velocities in lakes measured with SF6. Tellus 42B, 364–377.
   Google Scholar
• Van der Auwera, L., de Meyer, F. and Malat, L. M. 1980. The use of the Weibull three-parameter model for estimating mean wind power densities. J. Appl. MeteoroL 19, 819–825.
   Google Scholar
• Wanninkhof, R. 1992. Relationship between gas exchange and wind speed over the ocean. J. Geophys. Res. 97C, 7373–7381.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wanninkhof, R., Ledwell, J. R. and Broecker, W. S. 1985. Gas exchange, wind speed relation measured with sulfur hexafluoride on a lake. Science 227, 1224–1226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wanninkhof, R., Ledwell, J. R., Broecker, W. S. and Hamilton, M. 1987. Gas exchange on Mono Lake and Crowley Lake, California. J. Geophys. Res. 92C, 14567–14580.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wanninkhof, R. H. and Bliven, L. F. 1991. Relationship between gas exchange, wind speed, and radar back-scatter in a large wind-wave tank. J. Geophys. Res. 96C, 2785–2796.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wanninkhof, R., Ledwell, J. R. and Crucius, J. 1991. Gas transfer velocities on lakes measured with sulfur hexafluoride. Proc. 2nd internat. symp. on gas transfer at water surfaces, Minneapolis (Eds. S. C. Wilhelms and J. S. Gulliver), 441–458.
   Google Scholar
• Watson, A. J., Upstill-Goddard, R. C. and Liss, P. S. 1991. Air-sea gas exchange in rough and stormy seas measured by a dual-tracer technique. Nature 349, 145–147.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weibull, W. 1951. A statistical distribution function of wide applicability. J. Appl. Mech. 18, 293–297.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitman, W. G. 1923. A preliminary experimental confirmation of the two-film theory of gas absorption. It seems to explain satisfactorily the well-recognized differences of absorption rate for varying concentrations. Chem. Metall. Eng. 29, 146–148.
   Google Scholar
• Widger, W. K., Jr. 1977. Estimations of wind speed frequency distributions using only the monthly average and fastest mile data. J. Appl. Meteor. 16, 244–247.
   Google Scholar
• Yu, S. L., Hamrick, J. M. and Lee, D.-S. 1984. Wind effects on air-water oxygen transfer in a lake. In: Gas transfer at water surfaces (W. Brutsaert and G. H. Jirka, eds.), 357–367. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publ. Co.
   Google Scholar