Gas transfer velocity in the presence of wave breaking

References

• Agrawal Y. C. , Terray E. A. , Donelan M. A. , Hwang P. A. , Williams A. J. , co-authors . Enhanced dissipation of kinetic energy beneath surface waves. Nature. 1992; 359: 219–220.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anguelova M. D., Webster F. Whitecap coverage from satellite measurements: a first step toward modeling the variability of oceanic whitecaps. J. Geophys. Res. 2006; 111: C03017. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2005JC003158.
   Google Scholar
• Anis A. , Moum J. N . Surface wave–turbulence interactions. Scaling ɛ(z) near the sea surface. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 1995; 25: 2025–2045.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asher W. E. , Karle L. M. , Higgins B. J. , Farley P. J. , Monahan E. C. , co-authors . The influence of bubble plumes on air-seawater gas transfer velocities. J. Geophys. Res. 1996; 101: 12027–12041.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atlas R., Hoffman R. N., Ardizzone J., Leidner S. M., Jusem J. C., co-authors. A cross-calibrated, multiplatform ocean surface wind velocity product for meteorological and oceanographic applications. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc. 2011; 92: 157–174.
   Google Scholar
• Banner M. L. , Babanin A. V. , Young I. R . Breaking probability for dominant waves on the sea surface. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 2000; 30: 3145–3160.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Callaghan A. H., Deane G. B., Stokes M. D. Observed physical and environmental causes of scatter in whitecap coverage values in a fetch-limited coastal zone. J. Geophys. Res. 2008; 113: C05022. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2007JC004453, 2008..
   Google Scholar
• Chen G. , Chapron B. , Ezraty R. , Vandemark D . A global view of swell and wind sea climate in the ocean by satellite altimeter and scatterometer. J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol. 2002; 19: 1849–1859.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Craig P. D. , Banner M. L . Modeling wave-enhanced turbulence in the ocean surface layer. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 1994; 24: 2546–2559.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deacon E. L . Gas transfer to and across an air–water interface. Tellus A. 1977; 29: 363–374.
   Google Scholar
• Dodet G. , Bertin X. , Taborda R . Wave climate variability in the North–East Atlantic Ocean over the last six decades. Ocean Model. 2010; 31: 120–131.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drennan W. M. , Donelan M. A. , Terray E. A. , Katsaros K. B . Oceanic turbulence dissipation measurements in SWADE. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 1996; 26: 808–815.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ebuchi N. , Toba Y. , Kawamura H . Statistical study on the local equilibrium between wind and wind waves by using data from ocean data buoy stations. J. Oceanogr. Soc. Japan. 1992; 48: 77–92.
   Google Scholar
• Edson J. B. , Jampana V. , Weller R. A. , Bigorre S. P. , Plueddemann A. J. , co-authors . On the exchange of momentum over the open ocean. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 2013; 43: 1589–1610.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fairall C. W. , Hare J. E. , Edson J. B. , McGillis W . Parameterization and micro-meteorological measurements of air–sea gas transfer. Boundary Layer Meteorol. 2000; 96: 63–105.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feddersen F. , Trowbridge J. H. , Williams A. J . Vertical structure of dissipation in the nearshore. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 2007; 37: 1764–1777.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Felizardo F. C. , Melville W. K . Correlations between ambient noise and the ocean surface wave field. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 1995; 25: 513–532.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gemmrich J. R. , Farmer D. M . Near-surface turbulence and thermal structure in a wind-driven sea. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 1999; 29: 480–499.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gemmrich J. R. , Farmer D. M . Near-surface turbulence in the presence of breaking waves. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 2004; 34: 1067–1086.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerbi G. P. , Trowbridge J. H. , Terray E. A. , Plueddemann A. J. , Kukulka T . Observations of turbulence in the ocean surface boundary layer: energetics and transport. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 2009; 39: 1077–1096.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goda Y. , Nagai K . Investigation of the statistical properties of sea waves with fields and simulated data (in Japanese). Rep. Port Harbor Res. Inst. 1974; 13: 3–37.
   Google Scholar
• Goddijn-Murphy L. , Woolf D. K. , Callaghan A. H . Parameterizations and algorithms for oceanic whitecap coverage. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 2011; 41: 742–756.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenan B. J. W. , Oakey N. S. , Dobson F. W . Estimates of dissipation in the ocean mixed layer using a quasi-horizontal microstructure profiler. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 2001; 31: 992–1004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guan C., Hu W., Sun J., Li R. The whitecap coverage model from breaking dissipation parametrizations of wind waves. J. Geophys. Res. 2007; 112: C05031. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2006JC003714, 2007.
   Google Scholar
• Hanson J. L. , Phillips O. M . Wind sea growth and dissipation in the open ocean. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 1999; 29: 1633–1648.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanson J. L. , Phillips O. M . Automated analysis of ocean surface directional wave spectra. J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol. 2001; 18: 277–293.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hare J. E., Fairall C. W., McGillis W. R., Edson J. B., Ward B., co-authors. Evaluation of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/Coupled-Ocean Atmospheric Response Experiment (NOAA/COARE) air–sea gas transfer parameterization using GasEx data. J. Geophys. Res. 2004; 109(C8): C08S11. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2003JC001831.
   Google Scholar
• Hasselmann K . On the spectral dissipation of ocean waves due to whitecapping. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 1974; 126: 107–127.
   Google Scholar
• Hasselmann K. , Barnett T. P. , Bouws E. , Carlson H. , Cartwright D. E. , co-authors . Measurements of wind–wave growth and swell decay during the Joint North Sea Wave Project (JONSWAP). Ergänzung zur Deut. Hydrogr. Z. 1973; 8: 1–95.
   Google Scholar
• Huang N. E. , Shen Z. , Long S. R. , Wu M. L. , Shih H. H. , co-authors . The empirical mode decomposition and the Hilbert spectrum for nonlinear and non-stationary time series analysis. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A. 1998; 454(1971): 903–995.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang Z., Lenain L., Melville W. K., Middleton J. H., Reineman B., co-authors. Dissipation of wave energy and turbulence in a shallow coral reef lagoon. J. Geophys. Res. 2012; 117: C03015. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011JC007202.
   Google Scholar
• Hwang P. A., Sletten M. A. Energy dissipation of wind-generated waves and whitecap coverage. J. Geophys. Res. 2008; 113: C02012. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2007JC004277.
   Google Scholar
• Iwano K. , Takagaki N. , Kurose R. , Komori S . Mass transfer velocity across the breaking air–water interface at extremely high wind speeds. Tellus B. 2013; 65: 1–8.
   Google Scholar
• Jähne B. , Münnich K. O. , Dutzi R. B. A. , Huber W. , Libner P . On the parameters influencing air–water gas exchange. J. Geophys. Res. 1987; 92: 1937–1949.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones N. L. , Monismith S. G . The influence of whitecapping waves on the vertical structure of turbulence in a shallow estuarine embayment. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 2008; 38: 1563–1580.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kawai S. , Okada K. , Toba Y . Field data support of three seconds power law and the spectral form for growing wind waves. J. Oceanogr. Soc. Japan. 1977; 33: 137–150.
   Google Scholar
• Kennedy R. M . Sea surface dipole sound source dependence on wave-breaking variables. J. Acoust. Soc. Amer. 1992; 91: 1974–1982.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kitaigorodskii S. A . On the theory of the equilibrium range in the spectrum of wind-generated gravity waves. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 1983; 13: 816–827.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kitaigorodskii S. A . On the Fluid Dynamical Theory of Turbulent Gas Transfer Across an Air-Sea Interface in the Presence of Breaking Wind-Waves. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 1984; 14: 960–972.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kitaigorodskii S. A . Determining the influence of wind–wave breaking on the dissipation of the turbulent kinetic energy in the upper ocean and on the dependence of the turbulent kinetic energy on the stage of wind–wave development. Izv. Atmos. Oceanic Phys. 2009; 45: 372–379.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lafon C. , Piazzola J. , Forget P. , Le Calve O. , Despiau S . Analysis of the variations of the whitecap fraction as measured in a coastal zone. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 2004; 111: 339–360.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lamont J. C. , Scott D. S . An eddy cell model of mass transfer into the surface of a turbulent liquid. AIChE J. 1970; 16: 513–519.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li S. , Zhao D . Comparison of spectral partitioning techniques for wind wave and swell. Mar. Sci. Bull. 2012; 14: 24–36.
   Google Scholar
• Lorke A. , Peeters F . Toward a unified scaling relation for interfacial fluxes. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 2006; 36: 955–961.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGillis W. R. , Edson J. B. , Hare J. E. , Fairall C. W . Direct covariance air–sea CO2 fluxes. J. Geophys. Res. 2001; 106: 16729–16745.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McNeil C. , D'Asaro E . Parameterization of air–sea gas fluxes at extreme wind speeds. J. Mar. Syst. 2007; 66: 110–121.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mellor G. L. , Yamada T . Development of a turbulence closure model for geophysical fluid problems. Rev. Geophys. 1982; 20: 851–875.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monahan E. C. , Spillane M. C . Brutsaert W. , Jirka G. H . The role of oceanic whitecaps in air–sea gas exchange. Gas Transfer at Water Surfaces. 1984; Springer, Netherlands. 495–504.
   Google Scholar
• Münnich K. O. , Flothmann D . Gas exchange in relation to other air–sea interaction phenomena. Paper presented at SCOR Workshop on Air–Sea Interaction Phenomena. 1975; FL: Miami.
   Google Scholar
• Nightingale P. D . Air–sea gas exchange. Surface ocean-lower atmosphere processes. 2009; 187: 69–97.
   Google Scholar
• Orton P., Zappa C. J., McGillis W. R. Tidal and atmospheric influences on near surface turbulence in an estuary. J. Geophys. Res. 2010; 115: C12029.
   Google Scholar
• Pedersen T. , Siegel E . Wave Measurements from Subsurface Buoys. In: Current Measurement Technology, 2008. CMTC 2008. IEEE/OES 9th Working Conference on. 2008; Charlston, SC: IEEE. 224–233.
   Google Scholar
• Phillips O. M . Spectral and statistical properties of the equilibrium range in wind-generated gravity waves. J. Fluid Mech. 1985; 156: 505–531.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Resio D. T . The estimation of wind-wave generation in a discrete spectral model. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 1981; 11: 510–525.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith M. J. , Ho D. T. , Law C. S. , McGregor J. , Popinet S. , co-authors . Uncertainties in gas exchange parameterization during the SAGE dual-tracer experiment. Deep Sea Res. Part II Top. Stud. Oceanogr. 2011; 58: 869–881.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soloviev A. , Lukas R . Observation of wave-enhanced turbulence in the near-surface layer of the ocean during TOGA COARE. Deep Sea Res. Part I Oceanogr. Res. Pap. 2003; 50: 371–395.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stips A. , Burchard H. , Bolding K. , Prandke H. , Simon A. , co-authors . Measurement and simulation of viscous dissipation in the wave affected surface layer. Deep Sea Res. Part II Top. Stud. Oceanogr. 2005; 52: 1133–1155.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stramska M., Petelski T. Observations of oceanic whitecaps in the north polar waters of the Atlantic. J. Geophys. Res. 2003; 108(C3): 3086.
   Google Scholar
• Sugihara Y. , Tsumori H. , Ohga T. , Yoshioka H. , Serizawa S . Variation of whitecap coverage with wave-field conditions. J. Mar. Syst. 2007; 66: 47–60.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Terray E. A. , Donelan M. A. , Agrawal Y. C. , Drennan W. M. , Kahma K. K. , co-authors . Estimates of kinetic energy dissipation under breaking waves. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 1996; 26: 792–807.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toba Y . Local balance in the air–sea boundary processes. J. Oceanogr. 1972; 28: 109–120.
   Google Scholar
• Toba Y. , Kizu S. , Ebuchi N . On-board quantitative wind–wave observations using a stop watch. Prel. Rep. of The Hakuho Maru Cruise KH-88-2 (OMLET Cruise). 1988; Tokyo: Ocean Research Institute, University of Tokyo. 35–44.
   Google Scholar
• Toba Y. , Koga M . Monahan E. C. , Mac Niocaill G . A parameter describing overall conditions of wave breaking, whitecapping, sea-spray production and wind stress. Oceanic Whitecaps. 1986; Springer Netherlands, : Reidel Publishing Company. 37–47.
   Google Scholar
• Toba Y. , Suzuki Y. , Iida N . Banner M. L . Study on global distribution with seasonal variation of the whitecap coverage and sea-salt aerosol production on the sea surface. The Wind-Driven Air-Sea Interface. 1999; Sydney, Australia,: School of Mathematics, The University of New South Wales. 355–356.
   Google Scholar
• Tokoro T., Kayanne H., Watanabe A., Nadaoka K., Tamura H., co-authors. High gas-transfer velocity in coastal regions with high energy-dissipation rates. J. Geophys. Res. 2008; 113: C11006.
   Google Scholar
• Tolman H. L. , Chalikov D. V . Source terms in a third-generation wind wave model. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 1996; 26: 2497–2518.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vachon D. , Prairie Y. T. , Cole J. J . The relationship between near-surface turbulence and gas transfer velocity in freshwater systems and its implications for floating chamber measurements of gas exchange. Limnol. Oceanogr. 2010; 55: 1723–1732.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vickers D. , Mahrt L . Quality control and flux sampling problems for tower and aircraft data. J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol. 1997; 14: 512–526.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vickers D. , Mahrt L . The cospectral gap and turbulent flux calculations. J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol. 2003; 20: 660–672.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang W. , Huang R. X . Wind energy input to the surface waves. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 2004; 34: 1276–1280.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wanninkhof R. , Asher W. E. , Ho D. T. , Sweeney C. , McGillis W. R . Advances in quantifying air–sea gas exchange and environmental forcing*. Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci. 2009; 1: 213–244.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wanninkhof R. , Asher W. , Monahan E . Jähne B. , Monahan E . The influence of bubbles on air–water gas exchange: Results from gas transfer experiments during WABEX-93. Air–water Gas Transfer. 1995; Hanau, Germany: AEON Verlag. 239–254.
   Google Scholar
• Weber J. E. H. A note on mixing due to surface wave breaking. J. Geophys. Res. 2008; 113: C11009.
   Google Scholar
• Wen S. , Zhang D. , Guo P. , Chen B . Parameters in wind wave frequency spectra and their bearing on spectrum forms and growth. Acta Oceanol. Sin. 1989; 8(1): 15–39.
   Google Scholar
• Wilczak J. , Oncley S. , Stage S . Sonic anemometer tilt correction algorithms. Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 2005; 99: 127–150.
   Google Scholar
• Woolf D. K . Liss P. S. , Duce R. A . Bubbles and their role in gas exchange. The Sea Surface Microlayer and Global Change. 1997; Cambridge, Gran Bretaña,: Cambridge University Press. 173–205.
   Google Scholar
• Woolf D. K . Parametrization of gas transfer velocities and sea-state-dependent wave breaking. Tellus B. 2005; 57: 87–94.
   Google Scholar
• Wu J . Oceanic whitecaps and sea state. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 1979; 9: 1064–1068.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young I. R. , Babanin A. V . Spectral distribution of energy dissipation of wind-generated waves due to dominant wave breaking. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 2006; 36: 376–394.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zappa C. J., McGillis W. R., Raymond P. A., Edson J. B., Hintsa E. J., co-authors. Environmental turbulent mixing controls on air–water gas exchange in marine and aquatic systems. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2007; 34: L10601.
   Google Scholar
• Zhao D. , Li S. , Song C . The comparison of altimeter retrieval algorithms of the wind speed and the wave period. Acta Oceanol. Sin. 2012; 31: 1–9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao D. , Toba Y . Dependence of whitecap coverage on wind and wind–wave properties. J. Oceanogr. 2001; 57: 603–616.
   Google Scholar
• Zhao D., Toba Y., Sugioka K., Komori S. New sea spray generation function for spume droplets. J. Geophys. Res. 2006; 111: C02007. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2005JC002960.
   Google Scholar
• Zhao D. , Toba Y. , Suzuki Y. , Komori S . Effect of wind waves on air–sea gas exchange: proposal of an overall CO2 transfer velocity formula as a function of breaking-wave parameter. Tellus B. 2003; 55: 478–487.
   Google Scholar
• Zhao D. , Xie L . A Practical bi-parameter formula of gas transfer velocity depending on wave states. J. Oceanogr. 2010; 66: 663–671.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar