Diagnosis and Management of Common Chronic Metabolic Complications in HIV-infected Patients

References

• Lohse N, Hansen AB, Pedersen G, et al. Survival of persons with and without HIV infection in Denmark, 1995–2005. Ann Intern Med. 2007; 146(2): 87–95.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhaskaran K, Hamouda O, Sannes M, et al. CASCADE Collaboration. Changes in the risk of death after HIV seroconversion compared with mortality in the general population. JAMA. 2008; 300(1): 51–59.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palella FJ Jr, Baker RK, Moorman AC, et al. Mortality in the highly active antiretroviral therapy era: Changing causes of death and disease in the HIV outpatient study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006; 43(1): 27–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morse CG, Kovacs JA. Metabolic and skeletal complications of HIV infection: the price of success. JAMA. 2006; 296(7): 844–854.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobson DL, Tang AM, Spiegelman D, et al. Incidence of metabolic syndrome in a cohort of HIV-infected adults and prevalence relative to the US population (National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey). J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006; 43(4): 458–466.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bennett MT, Johns KW, Bondy GP. Current and future treatments of HIV-associated dyslipidemia. Future Lipidol. 2008; 3(2): 175–188.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shafran SD, Mashinter LD, Roberts SE. The effect of low-dose ritonavir monotherapy on fasting serum lipid concentrations. HIV Med. 2005; 6(6): 421–425.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arribas JR, Pozniak AL, Gallant JE, et al. Tenofovir disoprozil fumarate, emtricitabine, and efavirenz compared with zidovudine, lamivudine and efacirenz in treatment-naïve patients: 144-week analysis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2008; 47(1): 74–78.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallant JE, Staszewski S, Pozniak AL, et al. Efficacy and safety of tenofovir DF vs stavudine in combination therapy in antiretroviral-naïve patients: a 3-year randomized trial. JAMA. 2004; 282(2): 191–201.
   Google Scholar
• Sax PE. Strategies for management and treatment of dyslipidemia in HIV/AIDS. AIDS Care. 2006; 18(2): 149–157.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Leth F, Phanuphak P, Stroes E, et al. Nevirapine and efavirenz elicit different changes in lipid profiles in antiretroviral-therapy-naïve patients infected with HIV-1. PLoS Med. 2004; 1(1): e19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friis-Moller N, Sabin CA, Weber R, et al; Data Collection on Adverse Events of Anti-HIV Drugs (DAD) Study Group. Combination antiretroviral therapy and the risk of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 2003; 349(21): 1993–2003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Triant VA, Lee H, Hadigan C, Grinspoon SK. Increased acute myocardial infarction rates and cardiovascular risk factors among patients with human immunodeficiency virus disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007; 92(7): 2506–2512.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DAD Study Group; Friis-Møller N, Reiss P, Sabin CA, et al. Class of antiretroviral drugs and the risk of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 2007; 356(17): 1723–1735.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dubé MP, Stein JH, Aberg JA, et al; Adult AIDS Clinical Trials Group Cardiovascular Subcommittee; HIV Medical Association of the Infectious Disease Society of America. Guidelines for the evaluation and management of dyslipidemia in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected adults receiving antiviral therapy: recommendations of the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the Adults AIDS Clinical Trials Group. Clin Infect Disease. 2003; 37(5): 613–627.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carosi G, Quiros-Roldan E, Torti C, et al. Members of the Italian Cardiovascular Risk Guidelines Working Group. First Italian consensus statement on diagnosis, prevention and treatment of cardiovascular complications in HIV-infected patients in the HAART era (2006). Infection. 2007; 35(3): 134–142.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrios A, Blanco F, Garcia-Benayas T, et al. Effect of dietary intervention on highly active antiretroviral therapy-related dyslipemia. AIDS. 2002; 16(15): 2079–2081.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McPherson R, Frohlich J, Fodor G, Genest J. Canadian Cardiovascular Society: Canadian Cardiovascular Society position statement—recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of dyslipidemia and prevention of cardiovascular disease. Can J Cardiol. 2006; 22(11): 913–927.
   Google Scholar
• American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes—2008. Diabetes Care. 2008; 31(suppl 1): S12–S54.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nathan DM, Davidson MB, DeFronzo RA, et al. Impaired fasting glucose and impaired glucose tolerance: implications for care. Diabetes Care. 2007; 30(3): 753–759.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brar I, Shuter J, Thomas A, Daniels E, Absalon J; Minorities and Women's Task Force of Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS. A comparison of factors associated with prevalent diabetes mellitus among HIV-infected antiretroviral-naive individuals versus individuals in the National Health and Nutritional Examination Survey cohort. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007; 45(1): 66–71.
   Google Scholar
• Tien PC, Schneider MF, Cole SR, et al. Antiretroviral therapy exposure and incidence of diabetes mellitus in the women's Interagency HIV Study. AIDS. 2007; 21 (13): 1739–1745.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown TT, Cole SR, Li X, et al. Antiretroviral therapy and the prevalence and incidence of diabetes mellitus in the multicenter AIDS cohort study. Arch Intern Med. 2005; 165(10): 1179–1184.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Howard AA, Floris-Moore M, Lo Y, Arnsten JH, Fleischer N, Klein RS. Abnormal glucose metabolism among older men with or at risk of HIV infection. HIV Med. 2006; 7(6): 389–396.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meininger G, Hadigan C, Rietschel P, Grinspoon S. Body-composition measurements as predictors of glucose and insulin abnormalities in HIV-positive men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002; 76(2): 460–465.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson JA, Albu JB, Engelson ES, et al. Increased systemic and adipose tissue cytokines in patients with HIV-associated lipodystrophy. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2004; 286(2): E261–E271.
   Google Scholar
• Jain MK, Aragaki C, Fischbach L, et al. Hepatitis C is associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus in HIV-infected persons without traditional risk factors. HIV Med. 2007; 8(8): 491–497.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Florescu D, Kotler DP. Insulin resistance, glucose intolerance and diabetes mellitus in HIV-infected patients. Antivir Ther. 2007; 12(2): 149–162.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brinkman K, Smeitink JA, Romijn JA, Reiss P. Mitochondrial toxicity induced by nucleoside-analogue reverse-transcriptase inhibitors is a key factor in the pathogenesis of antiretroviral-therapy-related lipodystrophy. Lancet. 1999; 354(9184): 1112–1115.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morino K, Petersen KF, Dufour S, et al. Reduced mitochondrial density and increased IRS-1 serine phosphorylation in muscle of insulin-resistant offspring of type 2 diabetic parents. J Clin Invest. 2005; 115(12): 3587–3593.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Arner P. Insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes: role of fatty acids. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2002; 18(suppl 2): S5–S9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• De Wit S, Sabin CA, Weber R, et al. Incidence and risk factors for new-onset diabetes in HIV-infected patients: the Data Collection on Adverse Events of Anti-HIV Drugs (D: A: D) study. Diabetes Care. 2008; 31(6): 1224–1229.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birkus Ġ, Hájek M, Kramata P, Votruba I, Holý A, Otová B. Tenofovir diphosphate is a poor substrate and a weak inhibitor of rat DNA polymerases alpha, delta, and epsilon. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2002; 46(5): 1610–1613.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shikuma CM, Yang Y, Glesby MJ, et al. Metabolic effects of protease inhibitor-sparing antiretroviral regimens given as initial treatment of HIV-1 Infection (AIDS Clinical Trials Group Study A5095). J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007; 44(5): 540–550.
   Google Scholar
• Woerle HJ, Mariuz PR, Meyer C, et al. Mechanisms for the deterioration in glucose tolerance associated with HIV protease inhibitor regimens. Diabetes. 2003; 52(4): 918–925.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moyle G. Metabolic issues associated with protease inhibitors. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007; 45(suppl 1): S19–S26.
   Google Scholar
• Noor MA, Parker RA, O'Mara E, et al. The effects of HIV protease inhibitors atazanavir and lopinavir/ritonavir on insulin sensitivity in HIV-seronegative healthy adults. AIDS. 2004; 18(16): 2137–2144.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aberg JA, Gallant JE, Anderson J, et al. HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Primary care guidelines for the management of persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus: recommendations of the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2004; 39(5): 609–629.
   Google Scholar
• Delahanty LM, Nathan DM. Implications of the diabetes prevention program and Look AHEAD clinical trials for lifestyle interventions. J Am Diet Assoc. 2008; 108(4 suppl 1): S66–S72.
   Google Scholar
• Garber A, Bergman D, Bloomgarden Z, et al. American College of Endocrinology consensus statement on the diagnosis and management of pre-diabetes in the continuum of hyperglycemia—when do the risks of diabetes begin? American Task Force on Diabetes. July 23, 2008. http://www.aace.com/meetings/consensus/hyperglycemia/hyperglycemia.pdf. Accessed August 25, 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Martinez E, Conget I, Lozano L, Casamitjana R, Gatell JM. Reversion of metabolic abnormalities after switching from HIV-1 protease inhibitors to nevirapine. AIDS. 1999; 13(7): 805–810.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Busti AJ, Bedimo R, Margolis DM, Hardin DS. Improvement in insulin sensitivity and dyslipidemia in protease inhibitor-treated adult male patients after switch to atazanavir/ritonavir. J Investig Med. 2008; 56(2): 539–544.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walli RK, Michl GM, Bogner JR, Goebel FD. Improvement of HAART- associated insulin resistance and dyslipidemia after replacement of protease inhibitors with abacavir. Eur J Med Res. 2001; 6(10): 413–421.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mulligan K, Yang Y, Wininger DA, et al. Effects of metformin and rosiglitazone in HIV-infected patients with hyperinsulinemia and elevated waist/hip ratio. AIDS. 2007; 21(1): 47–57.
   Google Scholar
• Driscoll SD, Meininger GE, Ljungquist K, et al. Differential effects of metformin and exercise on muscle adiposity and metabolic indices in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004; 89(5): 2171–2178.
   Google Scholar
• Hadigan C, Yawetz S, Thomas A, Havers F, Sax PE, Grinspoon S. Metabolic effects of rosiglitazone in HIV lipodystrophy: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 2004; 140(10): 786–794.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slama L, Lanoy E, Valantin MA, et al. Effect of pioglitazone on HIV-1-related lipodystrophy: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial (ANRS 113). Antivir Ther. 2008; 13(1): 67–76.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hadigan C, Mazza S, Crum D, Grinspoon S. Rosiglitazone increases small dense low-density lipoprotein concentration and decreases high-density lipoprotein particle size in HIV-infected patients. AIDS. 2007; 21 (18): 2543–2546.
   Google Scholar
• Meier C, Kraenzlin ME, Bodmer M, Jick SS, Jick H, Meier CR. Use of thiazolidinediones and fracture risk. Arch Intern Med. 2008; 168(8): 820–825.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh S, Loke YK, Furberg CD. Long-term risk of cardiovascular events with rosiglitazone: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2007; 298(10): 1189–1195.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nissen SE, Nicholls SJ, Wolski K, et al. PERISCOPE Investigators. Comparison of pioglitazone vs glimepiride on progression of coronary atherosclerosis in patients with type 2 diabetes: the PERISCOPE randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2008; 299(13): 1561–1573.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chow DC, Day LJ, Souza SA, Shikuma CM. Metabolic complications of HIV therapy. IAPAC Mon. 2006; 12(9): 302–317.
   Google Scholar
• Fichtenbaum CJ, Hadigan CM, Kotler DP, et al. Treating morphologic and metabolic complications in HIV-infected patients on antiretroviral therapy. A consensus statement of an advisory committee of the International Association of Physicians in AIDS Care. IAPAC Mon. 2005; 11(2): 38–46.
   Google Scholar
• Falutz J. Therapy insight: body-shape changes and metabolic complications associated with HIV and highly active antiretroviral therapy. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab. 2007; 3(9): 651–661.
   Google Scholar
• Wierzbicki AS, Purdon SD, Hardman TC, Kulasegaram R, Peters BS. HIV lipodystrophy and its metabolic consequences: implications for clinical practice. Curr Med Res. 2008; 24(3): 609–624.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waters L, Nelson M. Long-term complications of antiretroviral therapy: lipoatrophy. Int J Clin Pract. 2007; 61(6): 999–1014.
   Google Scholar
• Samaras K. Metabolic consequences and therapeutic options in highly active antiretroviral therapy in human immunodeficiency virus-1 infection. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2008; 61: 238–245.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1-infected adults and adolescents. Department of Health and Human Services. October 10, 2006: 1–113. http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/AdultandAdoles-centGL000629.pdf. Accessed August 22, 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1-infected adults and adolescents. Department of Health and Human Services. January 29, 2008: 1–127. Available at: http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/AdultandAdolescentGL.pdf. Accessed October 3, 2008.
   Google Scholar