Prevention, Screening, and Management of Osteoporosis: An Overview of the Current Strategies

References

• . World Health Organization. Prevention and management of osteoporosis. World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser. 2003;921:1–164
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Bonjour JP, Theintz G, Law F, Slosman D, Rizzoli R. Peak bone mass. Osteoporos Int. 1994;4( suppl 1):7–13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . National Osteoporosis Foundation. Fast Facts, 2008. http://www.nof.org/osteoporosis/diseasefacts.htm. Accessed January 16, 2009
   Google Scholar
• . US Department of Health and Human Services. Bone health and osteoporosis: a report of the surgeon general. Rockville, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Surgeon General, 2004. www.hhs.gov/surgeongeneral/library/bonehealth/. Accessed January 16, 2009
   Google Scholar
• . Fitzpatrick LA. Secondary causes of osteoporosis. Mayo Clin Proc. 2002;77(5):453–468
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Kanis JA, Johansson H, Oden A, . A meta-analysis of prior corticosteroid use and fracture risk. J Bone Miner Res. 2004;19(6):893–899
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Van Staa TP, Leufkens HG, Abenhaim L, Zhang B, Cooper C. Use of oral corticosteroids and risk of fractures. J Bone Miner Res. 2000;15(6): 993–1000
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Van Staa TP, Leufkens HG, Abenhaim L, Zhang B, Cooper C. Oral corticosteroids and fracture risk: relationship to daily and cumulative doses. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2000;39(12):1383–1389
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Saag KG. Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2003;32(1):135–157
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . National Osteoporosis Foundation.Physician's Guide to Prevention and Treatment of Osteoporosis. Washington, DC: National Osteoporosis Foundation, 2008
   Google Scholar
• . Burge R, Dawson-Hughes B, Solomon DH, Wong JB, King A, Tosteson A. Incidence and economic burden of osteoporosis-related fractures in the United States, 2005-2025. J Bone Miner Res. 2007;22(3):465–175
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Melton LJ 3rd, Thamer M, Ray NF, . Fractures attributable to osteoporosis: report from the National Osteoporosis Foundation. J Bone Miner Res. 1997;12(1):16–23
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Shaker JL, Lukert BP. Osteoporosis associated with excess glucocorticoids. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2005;34(2):341–356
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Pasco JA, Sanders KM, Hoekstra FM, Henry MJ, Nicholson GC, Kotowicz MA. The human cost of fracture. Osteoporos Int. 2005;16(12):2046–2052
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Center JR, Nguyen TV, Schneider D, Sambrook PN, Eisman JA. Mortality after all major types of osteoporotic fracture in men and women: an observational study. Lancet. 1999;353(9156):878–882
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Riggs BL, Melton LJ 3rd. The worldwide problem of osteoporosis: insights afforded by epidemiology. Bone. 1995;17( 5 suppl):505S–511S
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Klotzbuecher CM, Ross PD, Landsman PB, Abbott TA 3rd, Berger M. Patients with prior fractures have an increased risk of future fractures: a summary of the literature and statistical synthesis. J Bone Miner Res. 2000;15(4):721–739
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . National Osteoporosis Foundation. America's bone health: the state of osteoporosis and low bone mass in our nation. Washington, DC: National Osteoporosis Foundation; 2002. http://www.nof.org/advocacy/prevalence. Accessed January 16, 2009
   Google Scholar
• . Gold DT. The nonskeletal consequences of osteoporotic fractures. Psychologic and social outcomes. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 2001;27(1):255–262
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Cooper C, Atkinson EJ, Jacobsen SJ, O'Fallon WM, Melton LJ 3rd. Population-based study of survival after osteoporotic fractures. Am J Epidemiol. 1993;137(9):1001–1005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Lindsay R, Silverman SL, Cooper C, . Risk of new vertebral fracture in the year following a fracture. JAMA. 2001;285(3):320–323
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Florida Academy of Family Physicians. Osteoporosis monograph; 2007. www.fafp.org/documents/February_08/osteoporsis_monograph.pdf. Accessed January 16, 2009
   Google Scholar
• . North American Menopause Society. Management of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women: 2006 position statement of the North American Menopause Society. Menopause. 2006;13(3):340–367
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . US Department of Health and Human Services. National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases. Osteoporosis: peak bone mass in women; 2005. http://www.niams.nih.gov/Health_Info/Bone/Osteoporosis/bone_mass.asp. Accessed January 16, 2009
   Google Scholar
• . Looker AC, Wahner HW, Dunn WL, . Updated data on proximal femur bone mineral levels of US adults. Osteoporos Int. 1998;8(5):468–489
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Slemenda CW, Christian JC, Williams CJ, Norton JA, Johnston CC Jr. Genetic determinants of bone mass in adult women: a reevaluation of the twin model and the potential importance of gene interaction on heritability estimates. J Bone Miner Res. 1991;6(6):561–567
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Barthe N, Basse-Cathalinat B, Meunier PJ, . Measurement of bone mineral density in mother-daughter pairs for evaluating the family influence on bone mass acquisition: a GRIO survey. Osteoporos Int. 1998;8(4):379–384
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Rizzoli R, Bonjour JP. Hormones and bones. Lancet. 1997;349( suppl 1):sI20–sI23
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Frank GR. The role of estrogen in pubertal skeletal physiology: epiphyseal maturation and mineralization of the skeleton. Acta Paediatr. 1995;84(6):627–630
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Rizzoli R, Bonjour JP, Ferrari SL. Osteoporosis, genetics and hormones. J Mol Endocrinol. 2001;26(2):79–94
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Cooper C, Westlake S, Harvey N, Javaid K, Dennison E, Hanson M. Review: developmental origins of osteoporotic fracture. Osteoporos Int. 2006;17(3):337–347
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Drinkwater BL, Nilson K, Chesnut CH 3rd, Bremner WJ, Shainholtz S, Southworth MB. Bone mineral content of amenorrheic and eumenor-rhoeic athletes. N Engl J Med. 1984;311(5):277–281
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Hind K, Truscott JG, Evans JA. Low lumbar spine bone mineral density in both male and female endurance runners. Bone. 2006;39(4):880–885
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Nattiv A, Loucks AB, Manore MM, Sanborn CF, Sundgot-Borgen J, Warren MP; American College of Sports Medicine. American College of Sports Medicine position stand. The female athlete triad. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39(10):1867–1882
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Sambrook P, Cooper C. Osteoporosis. Lancet. 2006;367(9527):2010–2018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Boyle WJ, Simonet WS, Lacey DL. Osteoclast differentiation and activation. Nature. 2003;423(6937):337–342
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Yasuda H, Shima N, Nakagawa N, . Osteoclast differentiation factor is a ligand for osteoprotegerin/osteoclastogenesis-inhibitory factor and is identical to TRANCE/RANKL. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1998;95(7):3597–3602
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Simonet WS, Lacey DL, Dunstan CR, . Osteoprotegerin: a novel secreted protein involved in the regulation of bone density. Cell. 1997;89(2):309–319
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Lacey DL, Timms E, Tan HL, . Osteoprotegerin ligand is a cytokine that regulates osteoclast differentiation and activation. Cell. 1998;93(2):165–176
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Silvestrini G, Ballanti P, Patacchioli F, . Detection of osteoprotegerin (OPG) and its ligand (RANKL) mRNA and protein in femur and tibia of the rat. J Mol Histol. 2005;36(1-2):59–67
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Eghbali-Fatourechi G, Khosla S, Sanyal A, Boyle WJ, Lacey DL, Riggs BL. Role of RANK ligand in mediating increased bone resorption in early postmenopausal women. J Clin Invest. 2003;111(8):1221–1230
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Hofbauer LC, Khosla S, Dunstan CR, Lacey DL, Spelsberg TC, Riggs BL. Estrogen stimulates gene expression and protein production of osteoprotegerin in human osteoblastic cells. Endocrinology. 1999;140(9):4367–4370
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Saika M, Inoue D, Kido S, Matsumoto T. 17beta-estradiol stimulates expression of osteoprotegerin by a mouse stromal cell line, ST-2, via estrogen receptor-alpha. Endocrinology. 2001;142(6):2205–2212
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Khosla S, Melton LJ 3rd, Atkinson EJ, O'Fallon WM, Klee GG, Riggs BL. Relationship of serum sex steroid levels and bone turnover markers with bone mineral density in men and women: a key role for bioavailable estrogen. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998;83(7):2266–2274
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Falahati-Nini A, Riggs BL, Atkinson EJ, O'Fallon WM, Eastell R, Khosla S. Relative contributions of testosterone and estrogen in regulating bone resorption and formation in normal elderly men. J Clin Invest. 2000;106(12):1553–1560
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Foley KA, Foster SA, Meadows ES, Baser O, Long SR. Assessment of the clinical management of fragility fractures and implications for the new HEDIS osteoporosis measure. Med Care. 2007;45(9):902–906
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Feldstein AC, Nichols G, Orwoll E, . The near absence of osteoporosis treatment in older men with fractures. Osteoporos Int. 2005;16(8):953–962
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Papaioannou A, Kennedy CC, Ioannidis G, ; CaMos Research Group. The osteoporosis care gap in men with fragility fractures: the Canadian Multicentre Osteoporosis Study. Osteoporos Int. 2008;19(4):581–587
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Saag KG, Gehlbach SH, Curtis JR, Youket TE, Worley K, Lange JL. Trends in prevention of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. J Rheumatol. 2006;33(8):1651–1657
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Chitre MM, Hayes W. 3-year results of a member and physician intervention to reduce risk associated with glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis in a health plan. J Manag Care Pharm. 2008;14(3):281–290
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Kanis JA. Diagnosis of osteoporosis and assessment of fracture risk. Lancet. 2002;359(9321):1929–1936
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Kanis JA, Johnell O, Oden A, Johansson H, McCloskey E. FRAX and the assessment of fracture probability in men and women from the UK. Osteoporos Int. 2008;19(4):385–397
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . International Society for Clinical Densitometry. 2007 ISCD Official Positions Brochure. Pediatric Official Positions. http://www.iscd.org/visitors/positions/OfficialPositionsText.cfm. Accessed January 16, 2009
   Google Scholar
• . Kanis JA, Glüer CC. An update on the diagnosis and assessment of osteoporosis with densitometry. Committee of Scientific Advisors, International Osteoporosis Foundation. Osteoporos Int. 2000;11(3):192–202
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Chesnut CH 3rd, Rosen CJ; Bone Quality Discussion Group. Reconsidering the effects of antiresorptive therapies in reducing osteoporotic fracture. J Bone Miner Res. 2001;16(12):2163–2172
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Sanders KM, Nicholson GC, Watts JJ, . Half the burden of fragility fractures in the community occur in women without osteoporosis. When is fracture prevention cost-effective? Bone. 2006;38:694–700
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Raisz LG. Clinical practice. Screening for osteoporosis. N Engl J Med. 2005;353(2):164–171
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Cuddihy MT, Gabriel SE, Crowson CS, . Osteoporosis intervention following distal forearm fractures. A missed opportunity? Arch Intern Med. 2002;162(4):421–426
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Dawson-Hughes B, Tosteson AN, Melton LJ 3rd, . National Osteoporosis Foundation Guide Committee. Implications of absolute fracture risk assessment for osteoporosis practice guidelines in the USA. Osteoporos Int. 2008;19(4):449–458
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Hodgson SF, Watts NB, Bilezikian JP, ; AACE Osteoporosis Task Force. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists medical guidelines for clinical practice for the prevention and treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis: 2001 edition, with selected updates for 2003. Endocr Pract. 2003;9(6):544–564
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Nieves JW, Golden AL, Siris E, Kelsey JL, Lindsay R. Teenage and current calcium intake are related to bone mineral density of the hip and forearm in women aged 30-39 years. Am J Epidemiol. 1995;141(4):342–351
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Dawson-Hughes B, Willett WC, . Effect of vitamin D on falls: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2004;291(16):1999–2006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Chapuy MC, Arlot ME, Duboeuf F. Vitamin D3 and calcium to prevent hip fractures in the elderly women. N Engl J Med. 1992;327(23):1637–1642
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Boonen S, Lips P, Bouillon R, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Vanderschueren D, Haentjens P. Need for additional calcium to reduce the risk of hip fracture with vitamin d supplementation: evidence from a comparative metaanalysis of randomized controlled trials. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;92(4):1415–1423
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Adami S, Giannini S, Bianchi G, . Vitamin D status and response to treatment in post-menopausal osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int. 2009;20(2):239–244
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Moore C, Murphy MM, Keast DR, Holick MF. Vitamin D intake in the United States. J Am Diet Assoc. 2004;104(6):980–983
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . National Osteoporosis Foundation. Prevention. http://www.nof.org/prevention/vitamind.htm. Accessed January 16, 2009
   Google Scholar
• . Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Giovannucci E, Willett WC, Dietrich T, Dawson-Hughes B. Estimation of optimal serum concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D for multiple health outcomes. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;84(1):18–28
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Vieth R, Bischoff-Ferrari H, Boucher BJ, . The urgent need to recommend an intake of vitamin D that is effective. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85(3):649–650
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Barger-Lux MJ, Heaney RP, Dowell S, Chen TC, Holick MF. Vitamin D and its major metabolites: serum levels after graded oral dosing in healthy men. Osteoporos Int. 1998;8(3):222–230
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Hathcock JN, Shao A, Vieth R, Heaney R. Risk assessment for vitamin D. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85(1):6–18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Bass S, Pearce G, Bradney M, . Exercise before puberty may confer residual benefits in bone density in adulthood: studies in active prepubertal and retired female gymnasts. J Bone Miner Res. 1998;13(3):500–507
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Baron JA, Farahmand BY, Weiderpass E, . Cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and risk for hip fracture in women. Arch Intern Med. 2001;161(17):983–988
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Krall EA, Dawson-Hughes B. Smoking and bone loss among postmenopausal women. J Bone Miner Res. 1991;6(4):331–338
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Krall EA, Dawson-Hughes B. Smoking increases bone loss and decreases intestinal calcium absorption. J Bone Miner Res. 1999;14(2): 215–220
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Jensen J, Christiansen C, Rødbro P. Cigarette smoking, serum estrogens, and bone loss during hormone replacement therapy early after menopause. N Engl J Med. 1985;313(16):973–975
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Falls among older adults: an overview. http://www.cdc.gov/ncipc/factsheets/adultfalls.htm. Accessed January 16, 2009
   Google Scholar
• . Cummings SR, Melton LJ. Epidemiology and outcomes of osteoporotic fractures. Lancet. 2002;359(9319):1761–1767
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Russell RG, Watts NB, Ebetino FH, Rogers MJ. Mechanisms of action of bisphosphonates: similarities and differences and their potential influence on clinical efficacy. Osteoporos Int. 2008;19(6):733–759
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Fosamax [package insert]. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck and Co; 2008
   Google Scholar
• . Actonel [package insert]. Cincinnati, OH: Procter & Gamble Pharmaceuticals, Inc.; 2008
   Google Scholar
• . Reclast [package insert]. Stein, Switzerland: Novartis Pharma Stein AG; 2009
   Google Scholar
• . Boniva [package insert]. Nutley, NJ: Roche Laboratories, Inc.; 2006
   Google Scholar
• . Evista [package insert]. Indianapolis, IN: Eli Lilly & Co.; 2007
   Google Scholar
• . Miacalcin [package insert]. East Hanover, NJ: Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corp.; 2006
   Google Scholar
• . Hodsman AB, Bauer DC, Dempster DW, . Parathyroid hormone and teriparatide for the treatment of osteoporosis: a review of the evidence and suggested guidelines for its use. Endocr Rev. 2005;26(5): 688–703
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Forteo [package insert]. Indianapolis, IN: Eli Lilly & Co.; 2008
   Google Scholar
• . Harris ST, Watts NB, Genant HK, . Effects of risedronate treatment on vertebral and nonvertebral fractures in women with postmenopausal osteoporosis: a randomized controlled trial. Vertebral Efficacy with Risedronate Therapy (VERT) Study Group. JAMA. 1999;282(14):1344–1352
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Reginster J, Minne HW, Sorensen OH, . Randomized trial of the effects of risedronate on vertebral fractures in women with established postmenopausal osteoporosis. Vertebral Efficacy with Risedronate Therapy (VERT) Study Group. Osteoporos Int. 2000;11(1):83–91
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . McClung MR, Geusens P, Miller PD, . Effect of risedronate on the risk of hip fracture in elderly women. Hip Intervention Program Study Group. N Engl J Med. 2001;344(5):333–340
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Black DM, Cummings SR, Karpf DB, . Randomised trial of effect of alendronate on risk of fracture in women with existing vertebral fractures. Fracture Intervention Trial Research Group. Lancet. 1996;348(9041):1535–1541
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Pols HA, Felsenberg D, Hanley DA, . Multinational, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of the effects of alendronate on bone density and fracture risk in postmenopausal women with low bone mass: results of the FOSIT study. Fosamax International Trial Study Group. Osteoporos Int. 1999;9(5):461–468
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Chesnut CH 3rd, Skag A, Christiansen C, . Oral Ibandronate Osteoporosis Vertebral Fracture Trial in North America and Europe (BONE). Effects of oral ibandronate administered daily or intermittently on fracture risk in postmenopausal osteoporosis. J Bone Miner Res. 2004;19(8):1241–1249
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Black DM, Delmas PD, Eastell R, . HORIZON Pivotal Fracture Trial. Once-yearly zoledronic acid for treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. N Engl J Med. 2007;356(18):1809–1822
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Lyles KW, Colón-Emeric CS, Magaziner JS, . HORIZON Recurrent Fracture Trial. Zoledronic acid and clinical fractures and mortality after hip fracture. N Engl J Med. 2007;357(18):1799–1809
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Cauley JA, Robbins J, Chen Z, ; Women's Health Initiative Investigators. Effects of estrogen plus progestin on risk of fracture and bone mineral density: the Women's Health Initiative randomized trial. JAMA. 2003;290:1729–1738
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Ettinger B, Black DM, Mitlak BH, . Reduction of vertebral fracture risk in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis treated with raloxifene: results from a 3-year randomized clinical trial. Multiple Outcomes of Raloxifene Evaluation (MORE) Investigators. JAMA. 1999;282(7):637–645
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Chesnut CH 3rd, Silverman S, Andriano K, . A randomized trial of nasal spray salmon calcitonin in postmenopausal women with estab-lished osteoporosis: the prevent recurrence of osteoporotic fractures study. PROOF Study Group. Am J Med. 2000;109(4):267–276
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Neer RM, Arnaud CD, Zanchetta JR, . Effect of parathyroid hormone (1-34) on fractures and bone mineral density in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. N Engl J Med. 2001;344(19):1434–1441
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Kanis JA, Johnell O. The burden of osteoporosis. J Endocrinol Invest. 1999;22(8):583–588
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Roux C, Seeman E, Eastell R, . Efficacy of risedronate on clinical vertebral fractures within six months. Curr Med Res Opin. 2004;20(4):433–439
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Harrington JT, Ste-Marie LG, Brandi ML, . Risedronate rapidly reduces the risk for nonvertebral fractures in women with postmenopausal osteoporosis. Calcif Tissue Int. 2004;74(2):129–135
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Black DM, Thompson DE, Bauer DC, . Fracture Intervention Trial. Fracture risk reduction with alendronate in women with osteoporosis: the Fracture Intervention Trial. FIT Research Group. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000;85(11):4118–4124
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Felsenberg D, Miller P, Armbrecht G, Wilson K, Schimmer RC, Papapoulos SE. Oral ibandronate significantly reduces the risk of vertebral fractures of greater severity after 1, 2, and 3 years in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. Bone. 2005;37(5):651–654
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Maricic M, Adachi JD, Sarkar S, Wu W, Wong M, Harper KD. Early effects of raloxifene on clinical vertebral fractures at 12 months in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. Arch Intern Med. 2002;162(10):1140–1143
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Black DM, Schwartz AV, Ensrud KE, ; FLEX Research Group. Effects of continuing or stopping alendronate after 5 years of treatment: the Fracture Intervention Trial Long-Term Extension (FLEX): a randomized trial. JAMA. 2006;296(24):2927–2938
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Mellström DD, Sörensen OH, Goemaere S, Roux C, Johnson TD, Chines AA. Seven years of treatment with risedronate in women with postmenopausal osteoporosis. Calcif Tissue Int. 2004;75(6):462–468
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Boniva [package insert]. Nutley, NJ: Roche Laboratories, Inc.; 2007
   Google Scholar
• . Khosla S, Burr D, Cauley J, . American Society for Bone and Mineral Research. Bisphosphonate-associated osteonecrosis of the jaw: report of a task force of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research. J Bone Miner Res. 2007;22(10):1479–1491
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Jeffcoat M, Watts NB. Osteonecrosis of the jaw: balancing the benefits and risks of oral bisphosphonate treatment for osteoporosis. Gen Dent. 2008;56(1):96–102
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Chlebowski RT, Hendrix SL, Langer RD, . WHI Investigators. Influence of estrogen plus progestin on breast cancer and mammography in healthy postmenopausal women: the Women's Health Initiative Randomized Trial. JAMA. 2003;289(24):3243–3253
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Manson JE, Hsia J, Johnson KC, . Women's Health Initiative Investigators. Estrogen plus progestin and the risk of coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med. 2003;349(6):523–534
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Cushman M, Kuller LH, Prentice R, ; Women's Health Initiative Investigators. Estrogen plus progestin and risk of venous thrombosis. JAMA. 2004;292(13):1573–1580
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Anderson GL, Limacher M, Assaf AR, . Women's Health Initiative Steering Committee. Effects of conjugated equine estrogen in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy: the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;291(14):1701–1712
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Barrett-Connor E, Mosca L, Collins P, ; Raloxifene Use for The Heart (RUTH) Trial Investigators. Effects of raloxifene on cardiovascular events and breast cancer in postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med. 2006;355(2):125–137
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Adomaityte J, Farooq M, Qayyum R. Effect of raloxifene therapy on venous thromboembolism in postmenopausal women. A meta-analysis. Thromb Haemost. 2008;99(2):338–342
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Cummings SR, Karpf DB, Harris F, . Improvement in spine bone density and reduction in risk of vertebral fractures during treatment with antiresorptive drugs. Am J Med. 2002;112(4):281–289
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Watts NB, Cooper C, Lindsay R, . Relationship between changes in bone mineral density and vertebral fracture risk associated with risedronate: greater increases in bone mineral density do not relate to greater decreases in fracture risk. J Clin Densitom. 2004;7(3):255–261
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Felsenberg D, Boonen S. The bone quality framework: determinants of bone strength and their interrelationships, and implications for osteoporosis management. Clin Ther. 2005;27(1):1–11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Bonnick SL, Shulman L. Monitoring osteoporosis therapy: bone mineral density, bone turnover markers, or both? Am J Med. 2006;119(4 suppl 1):S25–S31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Nishizawa Y, Nakamura T, Ohta H, ; Committee on the Guidelines for the Use of Biochemical Markers of Bone Turnover in Osteoporosis Japan Osteoporosis Society. Guidelines for the use of biochemical markers of bone turnover in osteoporosis (2004). J Bone Miner Metab. 2005;23(2):97–104
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Szulc P, Delmas PD. Biochemical markers of bone turnover: potential use in the investigation and management of postmenopausal osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int. 2008;19(12):1683–1704
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Burton AW, Hamid B. Kyphoplasty and vertebroplasty. Curr Pain Head Rep. 2008;12(1):22–27
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Banerjee S, Baerlocher MO, Asch MR. Back stab: percutaneous vertebroplasty for severe back pain. Can Fam Physician. 2007;53(7):1169–1175
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Brunton S, Carmichael B, Gold D, . Primary Care Education Consortium; Texas Academy of Family Physicians. Vertebral compression fractures in primary care: recommendations from a consensus panel. J Fam Pract. 2005;54(9):781–788
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Mathis JM. Percutaneous vertebroplasty or kyphoplasty: which one do I choose? Skeletal Radiol. 2006;35(9):629–631
   PubMedGoogle Scholar