Defining the Importance of Daily Glycemic Control and Implications for Type 2 Diabetes Management

References

• . Hoerger TJ, Segel JE, Gregg EW, Saaddine JB. Is glycemic control improving in U.S. adults? Diabetes Care. 2008;31(1):81–86
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . National Center for Health Statistics. National diabetes fact sheet, 2005. http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/pubs/pdf/ndfs_2005.pdf. Accessed March 16, 2009
   Google Scholar
• . American Diabetes Association. Economic costs of diabetes in the U.S. in 2007. Diabetes Care. 2008;31(3):596–615
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . DeFronzo RA. Lilly lecture 1987. The triumvirate: beta-cell, muscle, liver. A collusion responsible for NIDDM. Diabetes. 1988;37(6):667–687
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Kahn SE. Clinical review 135: the importance of β-cell failure in the development and progression of type 2 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86(9):4047–4058
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Unger RH. Alpha- and beta-cell interrelationships in health and disease. Metabolism. 1974;23(6):581–593
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Drucker DJ. Enhancing incretin action for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2003;26(10):2929–2940
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Rahmoune H, Thompson PW, Ward JM, Smith CD, Hong G, Brown J. Glucose transporters in human renal proximal tubular cells isolated from the urine of patients with non–insulin-dependent diabetes. Diabetes. 2005;54(12):3427–3434
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Kahn SE, Haffner SM, Heise MA, . Glycemic durability of rosiglitazone, metformin, or glyburide monotherapy. N Engl J Med. 2006;355(23):2427–2443
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Turner RC, Cull CA, Frighi V, Holman RR; UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Glycemic control with diet, sulfonylurea, metformin, or insulin in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: progressive requirement for multiple therapies (UKPDS 49). JAMA. 1999;281(21):2005–2012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes–2008. Diabetes Care. 2008;31( suppl 1):S12-–S54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Rodbard HW, Blonde L, Braithwaite SS, .; AACE Diabetes Mellitus Clinical Practice Guidelines Task Force. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists medical guidelines for clinical practice for the management of diabetes mellitus. Endocr Pract. 2007;13( suppl 1):1–68
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Sacks DB, Bruns DE, Goldstein DE, Maclaren NK, McDonald JM, Parrott M. Guidelines and recommendations for laboratory analysis in the diagnosis and management of diabetes mellitus. Clin Chem. 2002;48(3):436–472
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . American Academy of Family Physicians, American Diabetes Association. The benefits and risks of controlling blood glucose levels in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. A review of the evidence and recommendations. http://www.aafp.org/online/etc/medialib/aafp_org/documents/clinical/clin_recs/diabetespolicy.Par.0001.File.tmp/clinicalrecs_diabetespolicy05.pdf. Accessed March 16, 2009
   Google Scholar
• . Dailey G. Assessing glycemic control with self-monitoring of blood glucose and hemoglobin A1c measurements. Mayo Clin Proc. 2007;82(2):229–236
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Nathan DM, Kuenen J, Borg R, . Translating the A1C assay into estimated average glucose values. Diabetes Care. 2008;31(8):1473–1478
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Leiter LA, Ceriello A, Davidson JA, . Postprandial glucose regulation: new data and new implications. Clin Ther. 2005;27( suppl B):S42–S56
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . DeFronzo RA. Pharmacologic therapy for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med. 1999;131(4):281–303
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Nathan DM, Buse JB, Davidson MB, . Management of hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes: a consensus algorithm for the initiation and adjustment of therapy: a consensus statement from the American Diabetes Association and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2006;29(8):1963–1972
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Kimmel B, Inzucchi SE. Oral agents for type 2 diabetes: an update. Clinical Diabetes. 2005;23(2):64–76
   Google Scholar
• . Monnier L, Lapinski H, Colette C. Contributions of fasting and postprandial plasma glucose increments to the overall diurnal hyperglycemia of type 2 diabetic patients: variations with increasing levels of HbA1c. Diabetes Care. 2003;26(3):881–885
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Mitrakou A, Kelley D, Veneman T, . Contribution of abnormal muscle and liver glucose metabolism to postprandial hyperglycemia in NIDDM. Diabetes. 1990;39(11):1381–1390
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Mitrakou A, Kelley D, Mokan M, . Role of reduced suppression of glucose production and diminished early insulin release in impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med. 1992;326(1):22–29
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Bloomgarden ZT, Dodis R, Viscoli CM, Holmboe ES, Inzucchi SE. Lower baseline glycemia reduces apparent oral agent glucose-lowering efficacy: a meta-regression analysis. Diabetes Care. 2006;29(9):2137–2139
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Woerle HJ, Neumann C, Zschau S, . Impact of fasting and postprandial glycemia on overall glycemic control in type 2 diabetes. Importance of postprandial glycemia to achieve target HbA1c levels. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2007;77(2):280–285
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Jellinger PS, Davidson JA, Blonde L, . Road maps to achieve glycemic control in type 2 diabetes mellitus: ACE/AACE Diabetes Road Map Task Force. Endocr Pract. 2007;13(3):260–268
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Cryer PE, Davis SN, Shamoon H. Hypoglycemia in diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2003;26(6):1902–1912
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Cryer PE. Diverse causes of hypoglycemia-associated autonomic failure in diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2004;350(22):2272–2279
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Skyler JS, Bergenstal R, Bonow RO, . Intensive glycemic control and the prevention of cardiovascular events: implications of the ACCORD, ADVANCE, and VA diabetes trials: a position statement of the American Diabetes Association and a scientific statement of the American College of Cardiology Foundation and the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2009;119(2):351–357
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Hirsch IB, Brownlee M. Should minimal blood glucose variability become the gold standard of glycemic control? J Diabetes Complications. 2005;19(3):178–181
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Monnier L, Colette C. Glycemic variability: should we and can we prevent it? Diabetes Care. 2008;31( suppl 2):S150–S154
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Ceriello A. Postprandial hyperglycemia and diabetes complications: is it time to treat? Diabetes. 2005;54(1):1–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Brownlee M. Biochemistry and molecular cell biology of diabetic complications. Nature. 2001;414(6865):813–820
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Patel A, MacMahon S, Chalmers J, .; The ADVANCE Collaborative Group. Intensive blood glucose control and vascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(24):2560–2572
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). Lancet. 1998;352(9131):837–853
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Lachin JM, Genuth S, Nathan DM, Zinman B, Rutledge BN; DCCT/EDIC Research Group. Effect of glycemic exposure on the risk of microvascular complications in the diabetes control and complications trial—revisited. Diabetes. 2008;57(4):995–1001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Monnier L, Mas E, Ginet C, . Activation of oxidative stress by acute glucose fluctuations compared with sustained chronic hyperglycemia in patients with type 2 diabetes. JAMA. 2006;295(14):1681–1687
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Kahn SE, Zinman B, Lachin JM, . Rosiglitazone-associated fractures in type 2 diabetes: an Analysis from A Diabetes Outcome Progression Trial (ADOPT). Diabetes Care. 2008;31(5):845–851
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Glucophage [package insert]. Princeton, NJ: Bristol-Myers Squibb; 2008
   Google Scholar
• . Avandia [package insert]. Research Triangle Park, NC: GlaxoSmithKline; 2008
   Google Scholar
• . Nissen SE, Wolski K. Effect of rosiglitazone on the risk of myocardial infarction and death from cardiovascular causes. N Engl J Med. 2007;356(24):2457–2471
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Home PD, Pocock SJ, Beck-Nielsen H, . Rosiglitazone evaluated for cardiovascular outcomes—an interim analysis. N Engl J Med. 2007;357(1):28–38
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Dormandy JA, Charbonnel B, Eckland DJ, . Secondary prevention of macrovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes in the PROactive Study (PROspective pioglitAzone Clinical Trial in macroVascular Events): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2005;366(9493):1279–1289
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Drucker DJ, Nauck MA. The incretin system: glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors in type 2 diabetes. Lancet. 2006;368(9548):1696–1705
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Rosenstock J, Zinman B. Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors and the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2007;14(2):98–107
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Kieffer TJ, Habener JF. The glucagon-like peptides. Endocr Rev. 1999;20(6):876–913
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Rosenstock J, Sankoh S, List JF. Glucose-lowering activity of the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor saxagliptin in drug-naive patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2008;10(5):376–386
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Januvia [package insert]. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck & Co., Inc.; 2007
   Google Scholar
• . Onglyza [package insert]. Princeton, NJ: Bristol-Myers Squibb/Wilmington, DE: AstraZeneca; 2009
   Google Scholar
• . Walker EP. Saxagliptin first diabetes drug to pass FDA cardiovascular safety review. MedPage Today. http://www.medpagetoday.com/Washington-Watch/Washington-Watch/13555. Accessed August 20, 2009
   Google Scholar
• . Takeda Pharmaceuticals Limited. Takeda receives FDA complete response letter for alogliptin, an investigational treatment for type 2 diabetes. http://www.takeda.com/press/article_34760.html. Accessed August 20, 2009
   Google Scholar
• . Williams-Herman D, Round E, Swern AS, . Safety and tolerability of sitagliptin in patients with type 2 diabetes: a pooled analysis. BMC Endocr Disord. 2008;8:14
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Aschner P, Kipnes MS, Lunceford JK, . Effect of the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor sitagliptin as monotherapy on glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2006;29(12):2632–2637
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Pi-Sunyer FX, Schweizer A, Mills D, Dejager S. Efficacy and tolerability of vildagliptin monotherapy in drug-naive patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2007;76(1):132–138
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Boden G, Chen X. Effects of fat on glucose uptake and utilization in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes. J Clin Invest. 1995;96(3):1261–1268
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Ahrén B, Gomis R, Standl E, Mills D, Schweizer A. Twelve- and 52-week efficacy of the dipeptidyl peptidase IV inhibitor LAF237 in metformin-treated patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2004;27(12):2874–2880
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Hermansen K, Kipnes M, Luo E, . Efficacy and safety of the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor, sitagliptin, in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus inadequately controlled on glimepiride alone or on glimepiride and metformin. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2007;9(5):733–745
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Goldstein BJ, Feinglos MN, Lunceford JK, Johnson J, Williams-Herman DE; Sitagliptin 036 Study Group. Effect of initial combination therapy with sitagliptin, a dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor, and metformin on glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2007;30(8):1979–1987
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Chacra AR, Tan GH, Apanovitch S, Ravichandran S, List J, Chen R; CV181-040 Investigators. Saxagliptin added to a submaximal dose of sulphonylurea improves glycaemic control compared with uptitration of sulphonylurea in patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomised controlled trial. Int J Clin Pract. 2009;63(9):1395–1406
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Jadzinsky M, Pfützner A, Paz-Pacheco E, . Saxagliptin given in combination with metformin as initial therapy improves glycaemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes compared with either monotherapy: a randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2009;11(6):611–622
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Hollander P, Li J, Allen E, Chen R; CV181-013 Investigators. Saxagliptin added to a thiazolidinedione improves glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes and inadequate control on thiazolidinedione alone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. In press
   Google Scholar
• . Pratley RE, Kipnes MS, Fleck PR, Wilson C, Mekki Q; Alogliptin Study 007 Group. Efficacy and safety of the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor alogliptin in patients with type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled by glyburide monotherapy. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2009;11(2):167–176
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Pratley R, Kipnes M, Fleck P, Wilson C, Mekki Q. Alogliptin added to sulfonylurea therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes reduces HbA1c without increasing hypoglycemia. Diabetes. 2008;57( suppl 2). Abstract 445–P
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Nauck MA, Ellis GC, Fleck PR, Wilson CA, Mekki Q; Alogliptin Study 008 Group. Efficacy and safety of adding the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor alogliptin to metformin therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled with metformin monotherapy: a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Int J Clin Pract. 2009;63(1):46–55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Hansen KB, Knop FK, Holst JJ, Vilsbøll T. Treatment of type 2 diabetes with glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists. Int J Clin Pract. 2009;63(8):1154–1160
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Christofides EA, Boyle PJ, Johnson MT. Real world clinical experience with exenatide, a long term study on weight and A1c Control. Diabetes. 2009;58( suppl 1). Abstract 572-P
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Byetta [package insert]. San Diego, CA: Amylin Pharmaceuticals/Indianapolis, IN: Lilly USA LLC; 2008
   Google Scholar
• . Novo Nordisk. Research and development update: diabetes care. http://www.novonordisk.com/science/about_rd/quarterly_rd_update.asp. Accessed August 20, 2009
   Google Scholar
• . Amylin Pharmaceuticals. New drug application for exenatide once weekly accepted for review by FDA. http://investors.amylin.com/preview/phoenix.zhtml?c=101911&p=irol-newsArticle_pf&ID=1305317&highlight=. Accessed August 20, 2009
   Google Scholar
• . Novo Nordisk. Update on FDA advisory committee meeting on liraglutide for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Medical News Today. http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/145720.php. Accessed August 20 2009
   Google Scholar
• . Okerson T, Yan P, Miller S, Kim T. Exenatide once weekly reduced A1c, weight, and cardiovascular risk factors across a wide BMI range. Diabetes. 2009;58( suppl 1). Abstract 506-P
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Buse JB, Rosenstock J, Sesti G, .; LEAD-6 Study Group. Liraglutide once a day versus exenatide twice a day for type 2 diabetes: a 26-week randomised, parallel-group, multinational, open-label trial (LEAD-6). Lancet. 2009;374(9683):39–47
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Gerstein HC, Miller ME, Byington RP, .; Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes Study Group. Effects of intensive glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(24):2545–2559
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Duckworth W, Abraira C, Moritz T, . VADT Investigators. Glucose control and vascular complications in veterans with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2009;360(2):129–139
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Holman RR, Paul SK, Bethel MA, Matthews DR, Neil HA. 10-year follow-up of intensive glucose control in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008;359(15):1577–1589
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Nathan DM, Cleary PA, Backlund JY, .; The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial/Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications (DCCT/EDIC) Study Research Group. Intensive diabetes treatment and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2005;353(25):2643–2653
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . The Writing Team for the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial/Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications Research Group. Effect of intensive therapy on the microvascular complications of type 1 diabetes mellitus. JAMA. 2002;287(19):2563–2569
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Haffner SM, Lehto S, Rönnemaa T, Pyörälä K, Laakso M. Mortality from coronary heart disease in subjects with type 2 diabetes and in nondiabetic subjects with and without prior myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 1998;339(4):229–234
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Malmberg K, Ryden L, Wedel H, .; DIGAMI 2 Investigators. Intense metabolic control by means of insulin in patients with diabetes mellitus and acute myocardial infarction (DIGAMI 2): effects on mortality and morbidity. Eur Heart J. 2005;26(7):650–661
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Cefalu WT. Glycemic targets and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(24):2633–2635
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Dluhy RG, McMahon GT. Intensive glycemic control in the ACCORD and ADVANCE trials. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(24):2630–2633
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Bantle JP, Wylie-Rosett J, Albright AL, .; American Diabetes Association. Nutrition recommendations and interventions for diabetes: a position statement of the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care. 2008;31( suppl 1):S61–S78
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Rosenstock J, Rood J, Cobitz A, Biswas N, Chou H, Garber A. Initial treatment with rosiglitazone/metformin fixed-dose combination therapy compared with monotherapy with either rosiglitazone or metformin in patients with uncontrolled type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2006;8(6):650–660
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Rosenstock J, Kim SW, Baron MA, . Efficacy and tolerability of initial combination therapy with vildagliptin and pioglitazone compared with component monotherapy in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2007;9(2):175–185
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Heine RJ, Balkau B, Ceriello A, Del Prato S, Horton ES, Taskinen MR. What does postprandial hyperglycaemia mean? Diabet Med. 2004;21(3):208–213
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar