Understanding Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids

References

• . Sprecher H. Metabolism of highly unsaturated n-3 and n-6 fatty acids. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2000;1486(2-3):219–231
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Burdge GC, Calder PC. Dietary alpha linolenic acid and health-related outcomes: a metabolic perspective. Nutr Res Rev. 2006;19(1):26–52
   Google Scholar
• . British Nutrition Foundation. Briefing Paper: N-3 Fatty Acids and Health. London: British Nutrition Foundation; 1999
   Google Scholar
• . Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition/Committee on Toxicity. Advice on Fish Consumption: Benefits and Risks. London: TSO; 2004
   Google Scholar
• . Meyer BJ, Mann NJ, Lewis JL, Milligan GC, Sinclair AJ, Howe PR. Dietary intakes and food sources of omega-6 and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Lipids. 2003;38(4):391–398
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Givens DI. The role of animal nutrition in improving the nutritive value of animal-derived foods in relation to chronic disease. Proc Nutr Soc. 2005;64(3):395–402
   Google Scholar
• . Harris WS, Windsor SL, Dujovne CA. Effects of four doses of n-3 fatty acids given to hyperlipidemic patients for six months. J Am Coll Nutr. 1991;10(3):220–227
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Marsen TA, Pollok M, Oette K, Baldamus CA. Pharmacokinetics of omega-3 fatty acids during ingestion of fish oil preparations. Prost Leuk Essent Fatty Acids. 1992;46(3):191–196
   Google Scholar
• . Blonk MC, Bilo HJ, Popp-Snijders C, Mulder C, Donker AJ. Dose-response effects of fish oil supplementation in healthy volunteers. Am J Clin Nutr. 1990;52(1):120–127
   Google Scholar
• . Sanders TAB, Roshanai F. The influence of different types of ω3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on blood lipids and platelet function in healthy volunteers. Clin Sci. 1983;64(1):91–99
   Google Scholar
• . Healy DA, Wallace FA, Miles EA, Calder PC, Newsholme P. The effect of low to moderate amounts of dietary fish oil on neutrophil lipid composition and function. Lipids. 2000;35(7):763–768
   Google Scholar
• . Rees D, Miles EA, Banerjee T, . Dose-related effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on innate immune function in healthy humans: a comparison of young and older men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;83(2):331–342
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Katan MB, Deslypere JP, van Birgelen AP, Penders M, Zegwaard M. Kinetics of the incorporation of dietary fatty acids into serum cholesteryl esters, erythrocyte membranes and adipose tissue: an 18 month controlled study. J Lipid Res. 1997;38(10):2012–2022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Yaqoob P, Pala HS, Cortina-Borja M, Newsholme EA, Calder PC. Encapsulated fish oil enriched in α-tocopherol alters plasma phospholipid and mononuclear cell fatty acid compositions but not mononuclear cell functions. Eur J Clin Invest. 2000;30(3):260–274
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Popp-Snijders C, Schouten JA, van Blitterswijk WJ, van der Veen EA. Changes in membrane lipid composition of human erythrocytes after dietary supplementation of (n-3) fatty acids: maintenance of membrane fluidity. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1986;854(1):31–37
   Google Scholar
• . von Schacky C, Fischer S, Weber PC. Long term effects of dietary marine omega-3 fatty acids upon plasma and cellular lipids, platelet function, and eicosanoid formation in humans. J Clin Invest. 1985;76(4):1626–1631
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Calder PC, Yaqoob P. Lipid rafts—Composition, characterization and controversies. J Nutr. 2007;137(3):545–547
   Google Scholar
• . Miles EA, Calder PC. Modulation of immune function by dietary fatty acids. Proc Nutr Soc. 1998;57(2):277–292
   Google Scholar
• . Calder PC. The relationship between the fatty acid composition of immune cells and their function. Prost Leuk Essent Fatty Acids. 2008; 79(3–5):101–108
   Google Scholar
• . Nicolaou A, Kafatos G. Bioactive Lipids. Bridgewater, UK: The Oily Press; 2004
   Google Scholar
• . Serhan CN, Clish CB, Brannon J, Colgan SP, Gronert K, Chiang N. Anti-inflammatory lipid signals generated from dietary n-3 fatty acids via cyclooxygenase-2 and transcellular processing: a novel mechanism for NSAID and n-3 PUFA therapeutic actions. J Physiol Pharmacol. 2000;51(4 pt 1):643–654
   Google Scholar
• . Serhan CN, Clish CB, Brannon J, Colgan SP, Chiang N, Gronert K. Novel functional sets of lipid-derived mediators with antinflammatory actions generated from omega-3 fatty acids via cyclooxygenase 2-nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs and transcellular processing. J Exp Med. 2000;192(8):1197–1204
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Serhan CN, Hong S, Gronert K, . Resolvins: a family of bioactive products of omega-3 fatty acid transformation circuits initiated by aspirin treatment that counter proinflammation signals. J Exp Med. 2002;196(8):1025–1037
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Geleijnse JM, Giltay EJ, Grobbee DE, Donders AR, Kok FJ. Blood pressure response to fish oil supplementation: meta-regression analysis of randomized trials. J Hypertens. 2002;20(8):1493–1499
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . British Nutrition Foundation. Unsaturated Fatty Acids: Nutritional and Physiological Significance. London: Chapman and Hall; 1992
   Google Scholar
• . Harris WS. n-3 fatty acids and lipoproteins: comparison of results from human and animal studies. Lipids. 1996;31(3):243–252
   Google Scholar
• . Nestel P, Shige H, Pomeroy S, Cehun M, Abbey M, Raederstorff D. The n-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid increase systemic arterial compliance in humans. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;76(2):326–330
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . von Schacky C. Omega-3 fatty acids: antiarrhythmic, proarrhythmic or both? Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2008;11(2):94–99
   Google Scholar
• . Calder PC. n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation, and inflammatory diseases. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;83( 6 suppl):1505S–1519S
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Calder PC. n-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: evidence explained and mechanisms explored. Clin Sci. 2004;107(1):1–11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell'Infarto miocardico. Lancet. 1999;354(9177):447–455
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Marchioli R, Barzi F, Bomba E, . Early protection against sudden death by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids after myocardial infarction: time-course analysis of the results of the Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell'Infarto Miocardico (GISSI)-Prevenzione. Circulation. 2002;105(16):1897–1903
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Yokoyama M, Origasa H, Matsuzaki M, ; Japan EPA lipid intervention study (JELIS) Investigators. Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on major coronary events in hypercholesterolaemic patients (JELIS): a randomised open-label, blinded endpoint analysis. Lancet. 2007;369(9567):1090–1098
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Bucher HC, Hengstler P, Schindler C, Meier G. n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in coronary heart disease: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Med. 2002;112(4):298–304
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Studer M, Briel M, Leimenstoll B, Glass TR, Bucher HC. Effect of different antilipidemic agents and diets on mortality: a systematic review. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165(7):725–730
   Google Scholar
• . Calder PC. Session 3: Joint Nutrition Society and Irish Nutrition and Dietetic Institute Symposium on ‘Nutrition and autoimmune disease' PUFA, inflammatory processes and rheumatoid arthritis. Proc Nutr Soc. 2008;67(4):409–418
   Google Scholar
• . Calder PC. Polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammatory processes and inflammatory bowel diseases. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2008;52(8):885–897
   Google Scholar
• . SanGiovanni JP, Parra-Cabrera S, Colditz GA, Berkey CS, Dwyer JT. Meta-analysis of dietary essential fatty acids and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids as they relate to visual resolution acuity in healthy preterm infants. Pediatrics. 2000;105(6):1292–1298
   Google Scholar
• . SanGiovanni JP, Berkey CS, Dwyer JT, Colditz GA. Dietary essential fatty acids, long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, and visual resolution acuity in healthy fullterm infants: a systematic review. Early Hum Dev. 2000;57(3):165–188
   Google Scholar
• . Helland IB, Smith L, Saarem K, Saugstad OD, Drevon CA. Maternal supplementation with very-long-chain n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation augments children's IQ at 4 years of age. Pediatrics. 2003;111(1):e39–e44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Richardson AJ. Clinical trials of fatty acid treatment in ADHD, dyslexia, dyspraxia and the autistic spectrum. Prost Leuk Essent Fatty Acids. 2004;70(4):383–390
   Google Scholar
• . Freeman MP, Hibbeln JR, Wisner KL, . Omega-3 fatty acids: evidence basis for treatment and future research in psychiatry. J Clin Psychiatry. 2006;67(12):1954–1967
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Solfrizzi V, Frisardi V, Capurso C, . Dietary fatty acids in dementia and predementia syndromes: epidemiological evidence and possible underlying mechanisms [published online ahead of print July 28, 2009]. Ageing Res Rev
   Google Scholar
• . Lukiw WJ, Cui JG, Marcheselli VL, . A role for docosahexaenoic acid-derived neuroprotectin D1 in neural cell survival and Alzheimer disease. J Clin Invest. 2005;115(10):2774–2783
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . de Deckere EA, Korver O, Verschuren PM, Katan MB. Health aspects of fish and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids from plant and marine origin. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1998;52(10):749–753
   Google Scholar
• . Simopolous AP, Leaf A, Salem N. Essentiality and recommended dietary intakes for omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. Ann Nutr Metab. 1999; 43(2):127–130
   Google Scholar
• . Kris-Etherton PM, Harris WS, Appel LJ; American Heart Association Nutrition Committee. Fish consumption, fish oil, omega-3 fatty acids, and cardiovascular disease. Circulation. 2002;106(21):2747–2757
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Van de Werf F, Bax J, Betriu A, . Management of acute myocardial infarction in patients presenting with persistent ST-segment elevation: Task Force on the Management of ST-Segment Elevation Acute Myocardial Infarction of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur Heart J. 2008;29(23):2909–2945
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . British Cardiac Society; British Hypertension Society; Diabetes UK; HEART UK; Primary Care Cardiovascular Society; Stroke Association. JBS 2: Joint British Societies' guidelines on prevention of cardiovascular disease in clinical practice. Heart. 2005;91( suppl 5):v1–v52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Arterburn LM, Hall EB, Oken H. Distribution, interconversion, and dose response of n-3 fatty acids in humans. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006; 83( 6 suppl):1467S–1476S
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Burdge GC, Jones AE, Wootton SA. Eicosapentaenoic and docosapentaenoic acids are the principal products of alpha-linolenic acid metabolism in young men. Brit J Nutr. 2002;88(4):355–363
   Google Scholar
• . Burdge GC, Wootton SA. Conversion of alpha-linolenic acid to eicosapentaenoic, docosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in young women. Brit J Nutr. 2002;88(4):411–420
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Zhao G, Etherton TD, Martin KR, West SG, Gillies PJ, Kris-Etherton PM. Dietary alpha-linolenic acid reduces inflammatory and lipid cardiovascular risk factors in hypercholesterolemic men and women. J Nutr. 2004;134(11):2991–2997
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar