Relationship between Sleep Disorders and the Risk for Developing Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

References

• . Institute of Medicine. Sleep Disorders and Sleep Deprivation: An Unmet Public Health Problem. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2006. http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11617. Accessed April 2012
   Google Scholar
• . US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011. National diabetes fact sheet: national estimates and general information on diabetes and prediabetes in the United States, 2011. http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/pubs/pdf/ndfs_2011.pdf. Accessed April 2012
   Google Scholar
• . Punjabi NM. The epidemiology of adult obstructive sleep apnea. Proc Am Thorac Soc. 2008;5(2):136–143
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Lavie P, Herer P, Hoffstein V. Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome as a risk factor for hypertension: population study. BMJ. 2000; 320(7233):479–482
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Peppard PE, Young T, Palta M, Skatrud J. Prospective study of the association between sleep-disordered breathing and hypertension. N Engl J Med. 2000;342(19):1378–1384
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Peker Y, Carlson J, Hedner J. Increased incidence of coronary artery disease in sleep apnea: a long-term follow-up. Eur Respir J. 2006;28(3):596–602
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Punjabi NM, Caffo BS, Goodwin JL, . Sleep-disordered breathing and mortality: a prospective cohort study. PLoS Med. 2009;6(8):e1000132
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Einhorn D, Stewart DA, Erman MK, Gordon N, Philis—Tsimikas A, Casal E. Prevalence of sleep apnea in a population of adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Endocr Pract. 2007;13(4):355–362
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Schober AK, Neurath MF, Harsch IA. Prevalence of sleep apnoea in diabetic patients. Clin Respir J. 2011;5(3):165–172
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Foster GD, Sanders MH, Millman R, ; Sleep AHEAD Research Group. Obstructive sleep apnea among obese patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2009;(6):1017–1019
   Google Scholar
• . Punjabi NM, Sorkin JD, Katzel LI, Goldberg AP, Schwartz AR, Smith PL. Sleep-disordered breathing and insulin resistance in middle-aged and overweight men. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;165(5):677–682
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Ip MS, Lam B, Ng MM, Lam WK, Tsang KW, Lam KS. Obstructive sleep apnea is independently associated with insulin resistance. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;165(5):670–676
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Punjabi NM, Shahar E, Redline S, Gottlieb DJ, Givelber R, Resnick HE; Sleep Heart Health Study Investigators. Sleep-disordered breathing, glucose intolerance, and insulin resistance: the Sleep Heart Health Study. Am J Epidemiol. 2004;160(6):521–530
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Reichmuth KJ, Austin D, Skatrud J, Young T. Association of sleep apnea and type II diabetes: a population based study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;172(12):1590–1595
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Botros N, Concato J, Mohsenin V, Selim B. Obstructive sleep apnea as a risk factor for type 2 diabetes. Am J Med. 2009;122(12):1122–1127
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Marshall NS, Wong KK, Phillips CL, Liu PY, Knuiman MW, Grunstein RR. Is sleep apnea an independent risk factor for prevalent and incident diabetes in the Busselton Health Study? J Clin Sleep Med. 2009;5(1):15–20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Muraki I, Tanigawa T, Yamagishi K, ; CIRCS Investigators. Nocturnal intermittent hypoxia and the development of type 2 diabetes: the Circulatory Risk in Communities Study (CIRCS). Diabetologia. 2010;53(3):481–488
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Ronksley PE, Hemmelgarn BR, Heitman SJ, . Obstructive sleep apnoea is associated with diabetes in sleepy subjects. Thorax. 2009; 64(10):834–839
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Barceló A, Barbé F, de la Peña M, . Insulin resistance and daytime sleepiness in patients with sleep apnoea. Thorax. 2008;63(11): 946–950
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Louis M, Punjabi NM. Effects of acute intermittent hypoxia on glucose metabolism in awake healthy volunteers. J Appl Physiol. 2009;106(5):1538–1544
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Iiyori N, Alonso J, Li J, . Intermittent hypoxia causes insulin resistance in lean mice independent of autonomic activity. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;175(8):851–857
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Stamatakis K, Punjabi NM. Effects of experimental sleep fragmentation on glucose metabolism in normal subjects. Chest. 2010;137(1):95–101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Idris I, Hall A, O'Reilley J, . Obstructive sleep apnoea in patients with type 2 diabetes: aetiology and implications for clinical care. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2009;11(8):733–741
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Lui MM, Ip MS. Disorders of glucose metabolism in sleep-disordered breathing. Clin Chest Med. 2010;31(2):271–285
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Levy P, Bonsignore MR, Eckel J. Sleep, sleep-disordered breathing and metabolic consequences. Eur Respir J. 2009;34(1):243–260
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Tasali E, Mokhlesi B, Cauter EV. Obstructive sleep apnea and type 2 diabetes. Interacting epidemics. Chest. 2008;133(2):496–506
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Bonsignore MR, Eckel J. ERS Meeting Report. Metabolic aspects of obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome. Eur Respir Rev. 2009;18(112): 113–124
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Yokoe T, Alonso LC, Romano LC. Intermittent hypoxia reverses the diurnal glucose rhythm and causes pancreatic beta-cell replication in mice. J Physiol. 2008;586(3):899–911
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Xu J, Long YS, Gozal D. Beta-cell death and proliferation after intermittent hypoxia: role of oxidative stress. Free Radic Biol Med. 2009;46(6):783–790
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Punjabi NM, Beamer BA. Alterations in glucose disposal in sleep-disordered breathing. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2009;179(3): 235–240
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Papanas N, Steiropoulos P, Nena E, Tzouvelekis A. HbA1c is associated with severity of obstructive sleep apnea hypopnea syndrome in nondiabetic men. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2009;5:751–756
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Aronsohn RS, Whitmore H, Cauter EV, Tasali E. Impact of untreated obstructive sleep apnea on glucose control in type 2 diabetes. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2010;181(5):507–513
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Yang EH, Hla KM, McHorney CA, Havighurst T, Badr MS, Weber S. Sleep apnea and quality of life. Sleep. 2000;23(4):535–541
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . D'Ambrosio C, Bowman T, Mohsenin V. Quality of life in patients with obstructive sleep apnea: effect of nasal continuous positive airway pressure—a prospective study. Chest. 1999;115(1):123–129
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Epstein LJ, Kristo D, Strollo PJ Jr, ; Adult Obstructive Sleep Apnea Task Force of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine. Clinical guideline for the evaluation, management and long-term care of obstructive sleep apnea in adults. JCSM. 2009;5(3):263–276
   Google Scholar
• . Bazzano L, Khan Z, Reynolds K, He J. Effect of nocturnal nasal continuous positive airway pressure on blood pressure in obstructive sleep apnea. Hypertension. 2007;50(2):417–423
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Siccoli MM, Pepperell JC, Kohler M, Craig SE, Davies RJ, Stradling JR. Effects of continuous positive airway pressure on quality of life in patients with moderate to severe obstructive sleep apnea: data from a randomized controlled trial. Sleep. 2008;31(11):1551–1558
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Albarrak M, Banno K, Sabbagh AA, . Utilization of healthcare resources in obstructive sleep apnea syndrome: a 5-year follow-up study in men using CPAP. Sleep. 2005;28(10):1306–1311
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . AlGhanim N, Comondore V, Fleetham J, Marra CA, Ayas NT. The economic impact of obstructive sleep apnea. Lung. 2008;186(1): 7–12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Buchner NJ, Sanner BM, Borgel J, Rump LC. Continuous positive airway pressure treatment of mild to moderate obstructive sleep apnea reduces cardiovascular risk. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;176(12):1274–1280
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Campos—Rodriguez F, Martinez—Garcia MA, de la Cruz—Moron I, Almeida—Gonzalez C, Catalan—Serra P, Montserrat JM. Cardiovascular mortality in women with obstructive sleep apnea with or without continuous positive airway pressure treatment. A cohort study. Ann Intern Med. 2012;156(2):115–122
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Brooks B, Cistulli PA, Borkman M, . Obstructive sleep apnea in obese noninsulin-dependent diabetic patients: effect of continuous positive airway pressure treatment on insulin responsiveness. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1994;79(6):1681–1685
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Dorkova Z, Petrasova D, Molcanyiova A, Popovnakova M, Tkacova R. Effects of continuous positive airway pressure on cardiovascular risk profile in patients withsevere obstructive sleep apnea and metabolic syndrome. Chest. 2008;134(4):686–692
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Hassaballa HA, Tulaimat A, Herdegen JJ, Mokhlesi B. The effect of continuous positive airway pressure on glucose control in diabetic patients with severe obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep Breath. 2005;9(4): 176–180
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Pallayova M, Donic V, Tomori Z. Beneficial effects of severe sleep apnea therapy on nocturnal glucose control in persons with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2008;81(1):e8–e11
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Babu AR, Herdegen J, Fogelfeld L, Mazzone T. Type 2 diabetes, glycemic control, and continuous positive airway pressure in obstructive sleep apnea. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165(4):447–452
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Steiropoulos P, Papanas N, Nena E, Tsara V. Markers of glycemic control and insulin resistance in non-diabetic patients with obstructive sleep apnea hypopnea syndrome: does adherence to CPAP treatment improve glycemic control? Sleep Med. 2009;10(8):887–891
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Lam JC, Lam B, Yao TJ, . A randomized controlled trial of nasal continuous positive airway pressure on insulin sensitivity in obstructive sleep apnea. Eur Respir J. 2010;35(1):138–145
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . West S, Nicoll DJ, Wallace TM, Stradling JR. Effect of CPAP on insulin resistance and HbA1c in men with obstructive sleep apnoea and type 2 diabetes. Thorax. 2007;62(11):969–974
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Coughlin SR, Mawdsley L, Mugarza JA, Calverley PM. Cardiovascular and metabolic effects of CPAP in obese males with OSA. Eur Respir J. 2007;29(40):720–727
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Punjabi NM; Workshop Participants. Do sleep disorders and associated treatments impact glucose metabolism? Drugs. 2009; 69( suppl 2):13–27
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Patruno V, Aiolfi S, Costantino G, . Fixed and autoadjusting continuous positive airway pressure treatments are not similar in reducing cardiovascular risk factors in patients with obstructive sleep apnea. Chest. 2007;131(5):1393–1399
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Weinstock TG, Wang X, Rueschman M, . A controlled trial of CPAP therapy on metabolic control in individuals with impaired glucose tolerance and sleep apnea. Sleep. 2012;35(5):617B–625B
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Shpirer I, Rapoport MJ, Stav D, Elizur M. Normal and elevated HbAlc levels correlate with severity of hypoxemia in patients with obstructive sleep apnea and decrease following CPAP treatment. Sleep Breath. 2012;16(2):461–466
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Yang D, Liu Z, Yang H, Luo Q. Effects of continuous positive airway pressure on glycemic control and insulin resistance in patients with obstructive sleep apnea: a meta-analysis [published online ahead of print March 13, 2012]. Sleep Breath.
   Google Scholar
• . Hecht L, Möhler R, Meyer G. Effects of CPAP-respiration on markers of glucose metabolism in patients with obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ger Med Sci. 2011;Doc20
   Google Scholar
• . The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. N Engl J Med. 1993;329(14):977–986
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Stratton IM, Adler AI, Neil HA, . Association of glycaemia with macrovascular and microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 35): prospective observational study. BMJ. 2000; 321(7259):405–412
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Holman RR, Paul SK, Bethel MA, Matthews DR, Neil HA. 10-year follow-up of intensive glucose control in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008;359(15):1577–1589
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Duckworth W, Abraira C, Moritz T, ; VADT Investigators. Glucose control and vascular complications in veterans with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2009;360(2):129–139
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . ; Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes Study GroupGerstein HC, Miller ME, Byington RP, . Effects of intensive glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(24): 2545–2559
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . ; ADVANCE Collaborative GroupPatel A, MacMahon S, Chalmers J, . Intensive blood glucose control and vascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(24):2560–2572
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Selvin E, Marinopoulos S, Berkenblit G, . Metaanalysis: glycosylated hemoglobin and cardiovascular disease in diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med. 2004;141(6):421–431
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . World Health Organization. WHO fact sheets on diabetes. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs312/en/index.html. Accessed April 2012
   Google Scholar
• . Kosseifi S, Bailey B, Price R, Peiris AN. The association between obstructive sleep apnea syndrome and microvascular complications in well-controlled diabetic patients. Mil Med. 2010;175(11):913–916
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Young T, Finn L, Peppard PE, . Sleep disordered breathing and mortality: eighteen-year follow-up of the Wisconsin sleep cohort. Sleep. 2008;31(8):1071–1078
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Shaw J, Punjabi NM, Wilding J, Zimmet PZ; International Diabetes Federation Taskforce on Epidemiology and Prevention. Sleep-disordered breathing and type 2 diabetes: a report from the International Diabetes Federation Taskforce on Epidemiology and Prevention. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2008;81(1):2–12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . American Diabetes Association. Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes—2012. Diabetes Care. 2012;35( suppl 1):S11–S63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Knutson KL, Van Cauter E, Rathouz PJ, DeLeire T, Lauderdale DS. Trends in the prevalence of short sleepers in the USA: 1975–2006. Sleep. 2010;33(1):37–45
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. QuickStats. Percentage of adults who reported an average of ≤ 6h of sleep per 24-hour period, by sex and age group—United States, 1985 and 2004. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5437a7.htm. Accessed April 2012
   Google Scholar
• . National Sleep Foundation. 2009 Sleep in America™ Poll: Summary of Findings. Washington, DC: National Sleep Foundation; 2009
   Google Scholar
• . Gottlieb DJ, Punjabi NM, Newman AB, . Association of sleep time with diabetes mellitus and impaired glucose tolerance. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165(8):863–868
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Ayas NT, White DP, Al—Delaimy WK, . A prospective study of self-reported sleep duration and incident diabetes in women. Diabetes Care. 2003;26(2):380–384
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Gangwisch JE, Heymsfield SB, Boden—Albala B. Sleep duration as a risk factor for diabetes incidence in a large U.S. sample. Sleep. 2007;30(12):1667–1673
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Tuomilehto H, Peltonen M, Partinen M, . Sleep duration is associated with an increased risk for the prevalence of type 2 diabetes in middle-aged women—The FIN-D2D survey. Sleep Med. 2008;9(3): 221–227
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Mallon L, Broman JE, Hetta J. High incidence of diabetes in men with sleep complaints or short sleep duration: a 12-year follow-up study of a middle-aged population. Diabetes Care. 2005;28(11): 2762–2767
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Cappuccio F, D'Elia L, Strazzulio P, Miller MA. Quantity and quality of sleep and incidence of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Care. 2010;33(2):414–420
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Knutson KL, Ryden AM, Mander BA, Van Cauter E. Role of sleep duration and quality in the risk and severity of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166(16):1768–1774
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Spiegel K, Leproult R, Cauter EV. Impact of sleep debt on metabolic and endocrine function. Lancet. 1999;354(9188):1435–1439
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Knutson K, Spiegel K, Penev P, Van Cauter E. The metabolic consequences of sleep deprivation. Sleep Med Rev. 2007;11(3):163–178
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Zizi F, Jean—Louis G, Brown CD, Ogedegbe G, Boutin—Foster C, McFarlane SI. Sleep duration and the risk of diabetes mellitus: epidemiologic evidence and pathophysiologic insights. Curr Diab Rep. 2010;10(1):43–47
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Stranges S, Dorn JM, Shipley MJ. Correlates of short and long sleep duration: a cross-cultural comparison between the United Kingdom and the United States: the Whitehall II Study and the Western New York Health Study. Am J Epidemiol. 2008;168(12):1353–1364
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Wang XS, Armstrong ME, Cairns BJ, Key TJ, Travis RC. Shift work and chronic disease: the epidemiological evidence. Occup Med (Lond). 2011;61(2):78–89
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Pietroiusti A, Neri A, Somma G, . Incidence of metabolic syndrome among night-shift healthcare workers. Occup Environ Med. 2010;67(1):54–57
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Lin YC, Hsiao TJ, Chen PC. Persistent rotating shift-work exposure accelerates development of metabolic syndrome among middle-aged female employees: a five-year followup. Chronobiol Int. 2009; 26(4):740–755
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Lin YC, Hsiao TJ, Chen PC. Shift work aggravates metabolic syndrome development among early-middle-aged males with elevated ALT. World J Gastroenterol. 2009;15(45):5654–5661
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Violanti JM, Burchfiel CM, Hartley TA, . Atypical work hours and metabolic syndrome among police officers. Arch Environ Occup Health. 2009;64(3):194–201
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Mikuni E, Ohoshi T, Hayashi K, Miyamura K. Glucose intolerance in an employed population. Tohoku J Exp Med. 1983;141( suppl): 251–256
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Nagaya T, Yoshida H, Takahashi H, Kawai M. Markers of insulin resistance in day and shift workers aged 30–59 years. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 2002;75(8):562–568
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Karlsson B, Alfredsson L, Knutsson A, Andersson E, Toren K. Total mortality and cause-specific mortality of Swedish shift- and day workers in the pulp and paper industry in 1952–2001. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2005;31(1):30–35
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Pan A, Schernhammer ES, Sun Q, Hu FB. Rotating night shift work and risk of type 2 diabetes: two prospective cohort studies in women. PLos Med. 2011;8:e1001141
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Buxton O, Cain S, O'Connor SP. Adverse metabolic consequences in humans of prolonged sleep restriction combined with circadian disruption. Sci Transl Med. 2012;4(129):1–10
   Google Scholar
• . Walters A. Toward a better definition of the restless legs syndrome. The International Restless Legs Syndrome Study Group. Move Disord. 1995;10(5):634–642
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Clemens S, Rye D, Hochman S. Restless legs syndrome: revisiting the dopamine hypothesis from the spinal cord perspective. Neurology. 2006;67(1):125–130
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Skomro RP, Ludwig S, Salamon E, Kryger MH. Sleep complaints and restless legs syndrome in adult type 2 diabetics. Sleep Med. 2001;2:417–422
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Phillips B, Hening W, Britz P, Mannino D. Prevalence and correlates of restless legs syndrome: results from the 2005 National Sleep Foundation Poll. Chest. 2006;129(1):76–80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Lopes L, Lins Cde MM, Adeodato V. Restless legs syndrome and quality of sleep in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2005;28(11):2633–2636
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Merlino G, Valente M, Serafini A, . Effects of restless legs syndrome on quality of life and psychological status in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Educ. 2010;36(1):79–87
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Merlino G, Fratticci L, Valente M. Association of restless legs syndrome in type 2 diabetes: a case-control study. Sleep. 2007;30(7):866–871
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Cuellar NG, Ratcliff SJ. A comparison of glycemic control, sleep, fatigue and depression in type 2 diabetes with and without restless legs syndrome. JCSM. 2008;4(1):50–56
   Google Scholar
• . Luyster FS, Dunbar—Jacob J. Sleep quality and quality of life in adults with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Educ. 2011;37(3):347–355
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Walters AS, Rye DB. Review of the relationship of restless legs syndrome and periodic limb movements in sleep to hypertension, heart disease, and stroke. Sleep. 2009;32(5):589–597
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar