Hydrothermal carbonization of biomass residuals: a comparative review of the chemistry, processes and applications of wet and dry pyrolysis

• PerlackR, Wright L, Turhollow A et al.Biomass as a feedstock for a bioenergy and bioproducts industry: the technical feasibility of a billion-ton annual supply. US Department of Energy, DC, USA (2005).
   Google Scholar
• Energie aus Biomasse – Grundlagen, Techniken, Verfahren (2nd Edition). Kaltschmitt M, Hartmann H, Hofbauer H (Eds). Springer Verlag, Berlin, Germany (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Larkum A. Limitations and prospects of natural photosynthesis for bioenergy production. Curr. Opin. Biotech.21(3),271–276 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pratt K, Moran D. Evaluating the cost–effectiveness of global biochar mitigation potential. Biomass Bioenerg.34(8),1149–1158 (2010).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mathews JA. Carbon-negative biofuels. Energy Policy36(3),940–945 (2008).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitman T, Lehmann J. Biochar – one way forward for soil carbon in offset mechanisms in Africa? Environ. Sci. Policy.12(7),1024–1027 (2009).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biochar for Environmental Management. Lehmann J, Joseph S (Eds). Earthscan, London, UK (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Sohi S, Krull E, Lopez-Capel E, Bol R. A review of biochar and its use and function in soil. Adv. Agron.105,47–82 (2010).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antal MJ, Gronli M. The art, science, and technology of charcoal production. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.42(8),1619–1640 (2003).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology (2nd Edition). McNaught AD, Wilkinson A (Eds). Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Fitzer E, Kochling K, Boehm HP, Marsh H. Recommended terminology for the description of carbon as a solid (IUPAC Recommendations 1995). Pure Appl. Chem.67(3),473–506 (1995).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehmann J, Joseph S. Biochar for environmental management – an introduction. In: Biochar for Environmental Management: Science and Technology. Lehmann J, Joseph S (Eds). Earthscan, London, UK, 1–12 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Verheijen F, Diafas I, Jeffery S, Bastos A, Velde MVD. Biochar Application to Soils: A Critical Scientific Review of Effects on Soil Properties, Processes and Functions. EC Joint Research Centre, Brussels, Belgium, Report No. EUR 24099 EN – 2010 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• AmazonianDark Earths: Explorations in Space and Time. Glaser B, Woods WI (Eds). Springer Verlag, Berlin, Germany (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Sohi S, Lopez-Capel E, Krull E, Bol R Biochar, Climate Change and Soil: A Review to Guide Future Research. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Science Report No. 05/09 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Funke A, Ziegler F. Hydrothermal carbonization of biomass: a summary and discussion of chemical mechanisms for process engineering. Biofuel. Bioprod. Bior.4(2),160–177 (2010).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu B, Wang K, Wu L et al. Engineering carbon materials from the hydrothermal carbonization process of biomass. Adv. Mater.22(7),813–828 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lal R. Challenges and opportunities in soil organic matter research. Eur. J. Soil Sci.60,158–169 (2009).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glaser B, Haumaier L, Guggenberger G, Zech W. The ‘Terra preta’ phenomenon: a model for sustainable agriculture in the humid tropics. Naturwissenschaften88(1),37–41 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehmann J, Czimczik C, Laird D, Sohi S. Stability of biochar in soil. In: Biochar for Environmental Management – Science and Technology. Lehmann J, Joseph S (Eds). Earthscan, London, UK, 183–205 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Kuzyakov Y, Subbotina I, Chen H, Bogomolova I, Xu X. Black carbon decomposition and incorporation into soil microbial biomass estimated by 14C labeling. Soil Biol. Biochem.41(2),210–219 (2009).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Q, Li H, Chen L, Huang X. Monodispersed hard carbon spherules with uniform nanopores. Carbon39,2211–2214 (2001).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Titirici M, Antonietti M. Chemistry and materials options of sustainable carbon materials made by hydrothermal carbonization. Chem. Soc. Rev.39,103–116 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ro KS, Novak J, Bae S, Flora JRV, Berge ND. Greenhouse gas emission from soil amended with biochar made from hydrothermally carbonizing swine solids. Presented at: American Chemical Society National Meeting. San Francisco, CA, USA, 21–25 March 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Rillig MC, Wagner M, Salem M et al. Material derived from hydrothermal carbonization: Effects on plant growth and arbuscular mycorrhiza. Appl. Soil Ecol.45,238–242 (2010).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bridgwater AV. Pyrolysis – state of the art. In: Success & Visions for Bioenergy: Thermal Processing of Biomass for Bioenergy, Biofuels and Bioproducts. Bridgwater AV (Ed.). CPL Press, Newbury, Berks, UK (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Bugge G. Industrie der Holzdestillations-Produkte. Theodor Steinkopff, Dresden and Leipzig, Germany (1927).
   Google Scholar
• Nowak A. Chemische Holzverwertung. Hartleben, Vienna, Austria (1932).
   Google Scholar
• Bridgwater AV, Peacocke GVC. Fast pyrolysis processes for biomass. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev.4,1–73 (2000).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higman C, Burgt MVD. Gasification. Gulf Professional Publishing, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Behrendt F, Neubauer Y, Oevermann M, Wilmes B, Zobel N. Direct liquefaction of biomass. Chem. Eng. Technol.31(5),667–677 (2008).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterson AA, Vogel F, Lachance RP, Froeling M, Antal MJ. Thermochemical biofuel production in hydrothermal media: a review of sub- and supercritical water technologies. Energy Environ. Sci.1,32–65 (2008).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu H, Neubauer Y. Gasification. In: High Temperature Processes in Chemical Engineering. Lackner M (Ed.). ProcessEng Engineering GmbH, Vienna, Austria (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Bridle T, Hammerton I, Hertle C. Control of heavy-metals and organochlorines using the oil from sludge process. Water Sci. Technol.22(12),249–258 (1990).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sütterlin H, Trittler R, Bojanowski S, Stadbauer E, Kümmerer K. Fate of benzalkonium chloride in a sewage sludgelow temperature conversion process investigated by LC–LC/ESI–MS/MS. CLEAN – Soil Air Water35(1),81–87 (2007).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seki M. Recent advances in Pd/C-catalyzed coupling reactions. Chem. Inform.37(52),2975–2992 (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Lehmann J. Bio-energy in the black. Front. Ecol. Env.5(7),381–387 (2007).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CEC. Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources. Official Journal of the European Union L140/16 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Schuchardt F. [Organische reststoffe aus landwirtschaft, agrarindustrie und kommunen. In: Energie und Rohstoffe aus landwirtschaftlichen Reststoffen – Hydrothermale Carbonisierung ein geeignetes Verfahren?] BMELV, Berlin, Germany (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Smeets E, Faaij A, Dees M et al. Areview and harmonization of biomass resource assessments. Proceedings of the17th European Biomass Conference and Exhibition. Hamburg, Germany, 29 June–3 July 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Ragland KW, Aerts DJ, Baker AJ. Properties of wood for combustion analysis. Bioresour. Technol.37(2),161–168 (1991).
   Google Scholar
• Khalil R, Mészáros E, Grønli M et al. Thermal analysis of energy crops: part I: The applicability of a macro-thermobalance for biomass studies. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrol.81(1),52–59 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Tchobanoglous G, Theisen H, Vigil S. Integrated Solid Waste Management: Engineering Principles and Management Issues. McGraw-Hill, NY, USA (1993).
   Google Scholar
• Vesilind P, Worrell W, Reinhart D. Solid Waste Engineering. Brooks/Cole, Pacific Grove, CA, USA (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Gordillo G, Annamalai K, Carlin N. Adiabatic fixed-bed gasification of coal, dairy biomass, and feedlot biomass usingan air–steam mixture as an oxidizing agent. Renew. Energ.34(12),2789–2797 (2009).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ro KS, Cantrell KB, Hunt PG. High-temperature pyrolysis of blended animal manures for producing renewable energy and value-added biochar. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.49(20),10125–10131 (2010).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thom é-Kozmiensky K. [Biologische Abfallbehandlung. EF – Verlag für Energie und Umwelttechnik], Berlin, Germany (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Tchobanoglous G, Stensel DH. In: Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse: Metcalf & Eddy Inc. (4th Edition). Burton FL (Ed.). McGraw-Hill, NY, USA (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Yeoman S, Sterritt R, Rudd T, Lester J. Particle-size fractionation and metal distribution in sewage sludges. Water Air Soil Poll.45(1–2),27–42 (1989).
   Google Scholar
• Cantrell K, Ro K, Mahajan D, Anjom M, Hunt PG. Role of thermochemical conversion in livestock waste-to-energy treatments: obstacles and opportunities. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.46(26),8918–8927 (2007).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ro KS, Cantrell K, Elliott D, Hunt PG. Catalytic wet gasification of municipal and animal wastes. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.46(26),8839–8845 (2007).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Global Atlas of Excreta, Wastewater Sludge, and Biosolids Management: Moving Forward the Sustainable and Welcome Uses of a Global Resource. LeBlanc R, Matthews P, Richard RP (Eds). United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT), Nairobi, Kenya (2008).
   Google Scholar
• European Commission Environment. Urban waste water treatment – Commission Directive 98/15/EC amending Council Directive 98/271/EEC. (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Fytili D, Zabaniotou A. Utilization of sewage sludge in EU application of old and new methods – a review. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev.12(1),116–140 (2008).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esrey S. Towards a recycling society: ecological sanitation – closing the loop to food security. Water Sci.Technol.43(4),177–187 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Suzuki A, Nakamura T, Yokoyama S, Ogi T, Koguchi K. Conversion of sewage-sludge to heavy oil by direct thermochemical liquefaction. J. Chem. Eng. Jpn21(3),288–293 (1988).
   Google Scholar
• Campbell H, Bridle T. Conversion of sludge to oil – a novel-approach to sludge management – reply. Water Sci. Technol.21(12),1632–1632 (1989).
   Google Scholar
• He P, Gu G, Shao L, Zhang Y. Research on low temperature thermo-chemical conversion to oil process for sewage sludge. Water Sci.Technol.42(3–4),301–308 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Bridle T, Skrypski-Mantele S. Experience and lessons learned from sewage sludge pyrolysis in Australia. Water Sci.Technol.49(10),217–223 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bandosz T, Block K. Removal of hydrogen sulfide on composite sewage sludge-industrial sludge-based adsorbents. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.45(10),3666–3672 (2006).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rio S, Le Coq L, Faur C, Lecomte D, Le Cloirec P. Preparation of adsorbents from sewage sludge by steam activation for industrial emission treatment. Process Saf. Environ.84(B4),258–264 (2006).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rozada F, Otero M, Garcia A, Moran A. Application in fixed-bed systems of adsorbents obtained from sewage sludge and discarded tyres. Dyes Pigm.72(1),47–56 (2007).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu C, Tang Z, Chen Y, Su S, Jiang W. Characterization of mesoporous activated carbons prepared by pyrolysis of sewage sludge with pyrolusite. Bioresour. Technol.101(3),1097–1101 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoshida T, Antal M. Sewage sludge carbonization for Terra preta applications. Energ. Fuels.23,5454–5459 (2009).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bridle T, Pritchard D. Energy and nutrient recovery from sewage sludge via pyrolysis. Water Sci. Technol.50(9),169–175 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanchez M, Lindao E, Margaleff D, Martinez O, Moran A. Biofuels andbiochar production from pyrolysis of sewage sludge. J. Residuals Sci. Tech.6(1),35–41 (2009).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bogner J, Ahmed M, Diaz C et al. Waste management. In: Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (Eds). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Buah WK, Cunliffe AM, Williams PT. Characterization of products from the pyrolysis of municipal solid waste. Process Saf. Environ.85(B5),450–457 (2007).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang YH, Chen WC, Chang NB. Comparative evaluation of RDF and MSW incineration. J. Hazard. Mater.58(1–3),33–45 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Caputo AC, Pelagagge PM. RDF production plants: I design and costs. Appl. Therm. Eng.22(4),423–437 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Luo SY, Xiao B, Hu ZQ, Liu SM. Effect of particle size on pyrolysis of single-component municipal solid waste in fixed bed reactor. Int. J. Hydrogen Energ.35(1),93–97 (2010).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Downie A, Crosky A, Munroe P. Physical properties of biochar. In: Biocharfor environmental management – scienceand technology. Lehmann J, Joseph S (Eds). Earthscan, London, UK, 13–32 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Hofbauer H, Kaltschmitt M, Nussbaumer T. [Energie aus Biomasse – Grundlagen, Techniken, Verfahren.] Kaltschmitt M, Hartmann H, Hofbauer H (Eds). Springer Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 375–406 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Groenli MG, Varhegyi G, Di Blasi C. Thermogravimetric analysis and devolatilization kinetics of wood. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.41,4201–4208 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Mok WSL, Antal MJ, Szabo P, Varhegyi G, Zelei B. Formation of charcoal from biomass in a sealed reactor. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.31,1162–1166 (1992).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bobleter O. Hydrothermal degradation of polymers derived from plants. Prog. Polym. Sci.19,797–841 (1994).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landais P, Michels R, Elie M. Are time and temperature the only constraints to the simulation of organic matter maturation? Org. Geochem.22,617–630 (1994).
   Google Scholar
• Ruyter HP. Coalification model. Fuel61(12),1182–1187 (1982).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venderbosch RH, Sander C. Hydroconversion of wet biomass: a review. Report GAVE-9919. SenterNovem, Utrecht, The Netherlands (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Fang Z, Fang C. Complete dissolution and hydrolysis of wood in hot water. AIChE J.54(10),2751–2758 (2008).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BridgwaterAV. Renewable fuels and chemicals by thermal processing of biomass. Chem. Eng. J.91,87–102 (2003).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hatcher PG, Clifford DJ. The organic geochemistry of coal: from plant materials to coal. Org. Geochem.27,251–274 (1997).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hashaikeh R, Fang Z, Butler IS, Hawari J, Kozinski JA. Hydrothermal dissolution of willow in hot compressed water as a model for biomass conversion. Fuel.86(10–11),1614–1622 (2007).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Funke A, Ziegler F. Hydrothermal carbonization of biomass: a literature survey focusing on its technical application and prospects. Presented at: 17th European Biomass Conference and Exhibition. Hamburg, Germany, 1037–1050 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Bergius F. [Die Anwendung hoher Drücke bei chemischen Vorgängen und eine Nachbildung des Entstehungsprozesses der Steinkohle.]Wilhelm Knapp, Halle a. d. Saale, 41–58 (1913).
   Google Scholar
• Schuhmacher JP, Huntjens FJ, van Krevelen DW. Chemical structure and properties of coal XXVI – studies on artificial coalification. Fuel39,223–234 (1960).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sugimoto Y, Miki Y. Chemical structure of artificial coals obtained from cellulose, wood and peat. Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Coal Science ICCS ‘97. Ziegler A, van Heek KH, Klein J, Wanzl W (Eds). 1,187–190 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• van Krevelen DW. Coal: Typology – Physics – Chemistry – Constitution (3rd Edition). Elsevier, Amsterdam 837–846 (1993).
   Google Scholar
• Friedl A, Padouvas E, Rotter H, Varmuza K. Prediction of heating values of biomass fuel from elemental composition. Anal. Chim. Acta.544,191–198 (2005).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crelling JC, Hagemann HW, Sauter DH et al. Coal. In: Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley VCH, Weinheim, Germany 5–6 (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Oden S, Unnerstad A. Über die Nassverkohlung des Torfes. Brennstoff–Chemie.5,249–253 (1924).
   Google Scholar
• Sun X, Li Y. Colloidal carbon spheres and their core/shell structures with noble-metal nanoparticles. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.43,597–601 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cui X, Antonietti M, Yu S. Structural effects of iron oxide nanoparticles and iron ions on the hydrothermal carbonization of starch and rice carbohydrates. Small2,756–759 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yao C, Shin Y, Wang L et al. Hydrothermal dehydration of aqueous fructose solutions in a closed system. J. Phys. Chem. C111,15141–15145 (2007).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sevilla M, Fuertes A. Chemical and structural properties of carbonaceous products obtained by hydrothermal carbonization of saccharides. Chem–Eur. J.15(16),4195–4203 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baccile N, Laurent G, Babonneau F et al. Structural characterization of hydrothermal carbon spheres by advanced solid-state MAS 13C NMR investigations. J. Phys. Chem.113,9644–9654 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Shafizadeh F. Introduction to pyrolysis of biomass. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis.3,283–305 (1982).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siskin M, Katritzky AK. Reactivity of organic compounds in hot water: geochemical and technological implications. Science254,231–237 (1991).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• 100 Yu Y, Lou X, Wu HW. Some recent advances in hydrolysis of biomass in hot-compressed, water and its comparisons with other hydrolysis methods. Energ. Fuel.22(1),46–60 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Lichtenthaler FW. Towards improving the utility of ketoses as organic raw materials. Carbohydr. Res.313,69–89 (1998).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kabyemela BM, Adschiri T, Malaluan RM, Arai K. Glucose and fructose decomposition in subcritical andsupercritical water: detailed reaction pathway, mechanisms, and kinetics. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.38,2888–2895 (1999).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Titirici MM, Antonietti A, Baccile N. Hydrothermal carbon from biomass: a comparison of the local structure from poly- to monosaccharides and pentoses/ hexoses. Green Chem.10,1204–1212 (2008).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuster BFM. 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF). A review focussing on its manufacture. Starch/Staerke.42,314–321 (1990).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewkowski J. Synthesis, chemistry and applications of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and its derivatives. Arkivoc.17–54 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Karayildirim T, Sinag A, Kruse A. Char and coke formation as unwanted side reaction of the hydrothermal biomass gasification. Chem. Eng. Technol.31,1561–1568 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Titirici MM, Thomas A, Yu S, Müller J, Antonietti M. A direct synthesis of mesoporous carbons with bicontinuous pore morphology from crude plant material by hydrothermal carbonization. Chem. Mater.19,4205–4212 (2007).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masselter S, Zemann A, Bobleter O. Analysis of lignin degradation products by capillary electrophoresis. Chromatographia40,51–57 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Evans RJ, Milne TA. Molecular characterization of the pyrolysis of biomass. 1. Fundamentals. Energ. Fuel.1,123–137 (1987).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antal MJ, Croiset E, Dai X et al. High-yield biomass charcoal. Energ. Fuel10,652–658 (1996).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monthioux M, Landais P, Monin J. Comparison between natural and artificial maturation series of humic coals from the Mahakam delta, Indonesia. Org. Geochem.8,275–292 (1985).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaunt JL, Lehmann J. Energy balance and emissions associated with biochar sequestration and pyrolysis bioenergy production. Environ. Sci. Technol.42(11),4152–4158 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts KG, Gloy BA, Joseph S, Scott NR, Lehmann J. Life cycle assessment of biochar systems: estimating the energetic, economic, and climate change potential. Environ. Sci. Technol.44(2),827–833 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klason P, von Heidenstam G, Norlin E. Untersuchungen zur Holzverkohlung. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.25,1205–1214 (1909).
   Google Scholar
• Geissler C, Belau L. [Zum Verhalten der stabilen Kohlenstoffisotope bei der Inkohlung.] Z. Angew. Chem.17,13–17 (1971).
   Google Scholar
• Hägglund, SE. Vatkolning av Torv. AB Svensk Torvförädling, Lund. (1960).
   Google Scholar
• Prins MJ. Thermodynamic analysis of biomass gasification and torrefaction Eindhoven: Technische Universiteit Eindhoven (2005).
   Google Scholar
• Mok WSL, Antal MJ. Effects of pressure on biomass pyrolysis. II. Heats of reaction of cellulose pyrolysis. Thermochim. Acta68,165–186 (1983).
   Google Scholar
• Kunihisa KS, Ogawa H. Acid hydrolysis of cellulose in a differential scanning calorimeter. J. Thermal. Anal.30,49–59 (1985).
   Google Scholar
• Erlach B, Tsatsaronis G. Upgrading of biomass by hydrothermal carbonisation: analysis of an industrial-scale plant design. Presented at: The23rd International Conference on Efficiency, Cost, Optimization, Simulation and Environmental Impact of Energy Systems. Lausanne, Switzerland, 14–17 June 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Sehn W, Gerber H. Pyrolyse mit flammenloser oxidation kombinieren. BWK – Das Energie-Fachmagazin.10,22–26 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Mursito AT, Hirajima T, Sasaki K. Upgrading and dewatering of raw tropical peat by hydrothermal treatment. Fuel89(3),635–641 (2010).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bridgwater AV, Toft AJ, Brammer JG. A techno-economic comparison of power production by biomass fast pyrolysis with gasification and combustion. Renew. Sus. Energ. Rev.6(3),181–246 (2002).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer Z, Bienkowski P. Some remarks about the effect of smoke from charcoal kilns on soil degradation. Environ. Monit. Assess.58,349–358 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Berger S. Entwicklung und technische Umsetzung der Mechanisch/Thermischen Entwässerung zum Einsatz als Vortrocknungsstufe in braunkohlegefeuerten Kraftwerken. Shaker Verlag: Aachen (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Myreen B. PDF – new peat technology. Energy Digest.11,14–18 (1982).
   Google Scholar
• Lehmann J. A handful of carbon. Nature447(7141),143–144 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammes K, Schmidt MWI, Smernik RJ et al. Comparison of quantification methods to measure fire-derived (black/elemental) carbon in soils and sediments using reference materials from soil, water, sediment and the atmosphere. Global Biogeochem. Cycles21,GB3016 (2007).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsukashima H. The infrared spectra of artificial coal made from submergedwood at Uozu, Toyama Prefecture, Japan. Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn.39(3),460–465 (1966).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agblevor FA, Beis S, Kim SS, Tarrant R, Mante NO. Biocrude oils from the fast pyrolysis of poultry litter and hardwood. Waste Manag.30(2),298–307 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zheng J, Jin Y, Chi Y et al. Pyrolysis characteristics of organic components of municipal solid waste at high heating rates. Waste Manag.29(3),1089–1094 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Chan KY, Xu ZH. Biochar – nutrient properties and their enhancement. In: Biochar for Environmental Management: Science and Technology. Lehmann J, Joseph S (Eds). Earthscan, London, UK, 67–84 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• KimS, Agblevor FA, Lim J. Fast pyrolysis of chicken litter and turkey litter in a fluidized bed reactor. J. Ind. Eng. Chem.15(2),247–252 (2009).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hossain M, Strezov V, Chan K, Nelson P. Agronomic properties of wastewater sludge biochar and bioavailability of metals in production of cherry tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum). Chemosphere78(9),1167–1171 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shinogi Y. Nutrient leaching from carbon products of sludge. ASAE/CSAE Annual International Meeting. Ottawa, ON, Canada, Paper Number 044063 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Fuertes A, Arbestain M, Sevilla M et al. Chemical and structural properties of carbonaceous products obtained by pyrolysis and hydrothermal carbonisation of corn stover. Aust. J. Soil Res.48(7),618–626 (2010).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knicker H. How does fire affect the nature and stability of soil organic nitrogen and carbon? A review. Biogeochemistry85(1),91–118 (2007).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shinogi Y, Kanri Y. Pyrolysis of plant, animal and human waste: physical and chemical characterization of the pyrolytic products. Bioresour. Technol.90(3),241–247 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wild T. Demineralisierung und mechanisch/thermische Entwässerung von Braunkohlen und Biobrennstoffen. Shaker Verlag: Aachen (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Koutcheiko S, Monreal C, Kodama H, McCracken T, Kotlyar L. Preparation and characterization of activated carbon derived from the thermo-chemical conversion of chicken manure. Bioresource Technol.98(13),2459–2464 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McIntyre A, Papic M. Pyrolysis of municipal solid waste. Can. J. Chem. Eng.52,263–272 (1974).
   Google Scholar
• Vassilev SV, Braekman-Danheux C. Characterization of refuse-derived char from municipal solid waste – 2. Occurrence, abundance and source of trace elements. Fuel Process. Technol.59(2–3),135–161 (1999).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• German Federal Law on Soil Protection (BBodSchG), Law for the protection against harmful structural changes of the soil and for the remediation of contaminated land as of 03/17/98, last amended through article 3 G as of 12/09/04. Federal Law Gazette3214 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Hwang IH, Matsuto T, Tanaka N, Sasaki Y, Tanaami K. Characterization of char derived from various types of solid wastes from the standpoint of fuel recovery and pretreatment before landfilling. Waste Manage.27(9),1155–1166 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lutz H, Romeiro GA, Damasceno RN, Kutubuddin M, Bayer E. Low temperature conversion of some Brazilian municipal and industrial sludges. Bioresour. Technol.74(2),103–107 (2000).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia-Perez M. The formation of polyaromatic hydrocarbons and dioxins during pyrolysis. Report WSUEEP08-010. Washington State University, WA, USA (2008).
   Google Scholar
• McLaughlin H, Anderson PS, Shields FE, Reed TB. All biochars are not created equal and how to tell them apart. Presented at: North American Biochars Conference. Boulder, CO, USA, 9–12 August 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Joseph S, Peacocke C, Lehmann J, Munroe P. Developing a Biochar classification and test methods. In: Biocharfor Environmental Management – Science and Technology. Lehmann J, Joseph S (Eds). Earthscan, London, UK, 107–126 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Okimori Y, Ogawa M, Takahashi F. Potential of CO2 emission reductions by carbonizing biomass waste from industrial tree plantation in South Sumatra, Indonesia. Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Change.8(3),261–280 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• IPCC. Climate Change 2007 – The Physical Science Basis: Working Group I Contribution to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Schmidt MWI, Skjemstad JO, Gehrt E, Kögel-Knabner I. Charred organic carbon in German chernozemic soils. Europ. J. Soil Sci.50(2),351–365 (1999).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehmann J, Skjemstad J, Sohi S et al. Australian climate-carbon cycle feedback reduced by soil black carbon. Nature Geosci.1(12),832–835 (2008).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neves EG, Petersen JB, Bartone RN, Silva CAD. Historical and socio-cultural origins of Amazonian Dark Earths. In: Amazonian Dark Earths: Origin, Properties, Management. Lehmann J, Kern DC, Glaser B, Woods WI (Eds). Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 29–50 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Glaser B, Lehmann J, Zech W. Ameliorating physical and chemical properties of highly weathered soils in the Tropics with charcoal – a review. Biol. Fertil. Soils.35,219–230 (2002).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng C, Lehmann J, Thies JE, Burton SD. Stability of black carbon in soils across a climatic gradient. J. Geophys. Res.113(G02027), DOI :10.1029/2007JG000642 (2008) (Epub).
   Google Scholar
• Nguyen B, Lehmann J, Kinyangi J et al. Long-term black carbon dynamics in cultivated soil. Biogeochemistry89(3),295–308 (2008).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammes K, Schmidt M. Changes of biochar in soil. In: Biochar for Environmental Management – Science and Technology. Lehmann J, Joseph S (Eds). Earthscan, London, UK, 169–181 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Cao X, Ro KS, Chappell M, Li Y, Mao J. Chemical structure of swine-manure chars with different carbonization conditions using advanced solid-state 13C NMR spectroscopy. In Print. Energ. Fuel (2011).
   Google Scholar
• Steinbeiss S, Gleixner G, Antonietti M. Effect of biochar amendment on soil carbon balance and soil microbial activity. Soil Biol. Biochem.41(6),1301–1310 (2009).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng C, Lehmann J, Thies JE, Burton AJ, Engelhard M. Oxidation of black carbon by biotic and abiotic processes. Organic Geochem.37,1477–1488 (2006).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng C, Lehmann J. Ageing of black carbon along a temperature gradient. Chemosphere75(8),1021–1027 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brodowski S, John B, Flessa H, Amelung W. Aggregate-occluded black carbon in soil. Europ. J. Soil Sci.57(4),539–546 (2006).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wengel M, Kothe E, Schmidt CM, Heide K, Gleixner G. Degradation of organic matter from black shales and charcoal by the wood-rotting fungus Schizophyllum commune and release of DOC and heavy metals in the aqueous phase. Sci. Total Environ.367(1),383–393 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czimczik CI, Masiello CA. Controls on black carbon storage in soils. Global Biogeochem. Cycles.21(3),GB3005 (2007).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nguyen BT, Lehmann J. Black carbon decomposition under varying water regimes. Organic Geochem.40(8),846–853 (2009).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Major J, Lehmann J, Rondon M, Goodale C. Fate of soil-applied black carbon: downward migration, leaching and soil respiration. Global Change Biol.16(4),1366–1379 (2010).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wardle DA, Nilsson M, Zackrisson O. Fire-derived charcoal causes loss of forest humus. Science320(5876),629 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warnock D, Lehmann J, Kuyper T, Rillig M. Mycorrhizal responses to biochar in soil – concepts and mechanisms. PlantSoil300(1),9–20 (2007).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright S, Upadhyaya A. A survey of soils for aggregate stability and glomalin, a glycoprotein produced by hyphae of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. PlantSoil198(1),97–107 (1998).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rillig M, Caldwell B, Wösten H, Sollins P. Role of proteins in soil carbon and nitrogen storage: controls on persistence. Biogeochemistry85(1),25–44 (2007).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oguntunde PG, Abiodun BJ, Ajayi AE, van de Giesen N. Effects of charcoal production on soil physical properties in Ghana. J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci.171(4),591–596 (2008).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan KY, Van Zwieten L, Meszaros I, Downie A, Joseph S. Agronomic values of greenwaste biochar as a soil amendment. Austr. J. Soil Res.45(8),629–634 (2007).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan KY, Van Zwieten L, Meszaros I, Downie A, Joseph S. Using poultry litter biochars as soil amendments. Austr. J. Soil Res.46(5),437–444 (2008).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liang B, Lehmann J, Solomon D et al. Black carbon increases cation exchange capacity in soils. SSSAJ70,1719–1730 (2006).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steiner C, Glaser B, Teixeira WG et al. Nitrogen retention and plant uptake on a highly weathered central Amazonian Ferralsol amended with compost and charcoal. J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci.171(6),893–899 (2008).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kolb SE, Fermanich KJ, Dornbush ME. Effect of charcoal quantity on microbial biomass and activity in temperate soils. SSSAJ73(4),1173–1181 (2009).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thies J, Rillig MC. Characteristics of biochar: biological properties. In: Biochar for Environmental Management: Science and Technology. Lehmann J, Joseph S (Eds). Earthscan, London, UK, 85–105 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Rondon M, Lehmann J, Ramírez J, Hurtado M. Biological nitrogen fixation by common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) increases with bio-char additions. Biol. Fertil. Soils43(6),699–708 (2007).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Major J, Husk B. Commercial scale agricultural biochar field trial in Québec, Canada, over two years: Effects of biochar on soil fertility, biology, crop productivity and quality. Experimental Report, BlueLeaf Inc., QC, USA 1–38 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• van Zwieten L, Kimber S, Morris S et al. Effects of biochar from slow pyrolysis of papermill waste on agronomic performance and soil fertility. PlantSoil327(1),235–246 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Kammann C. Zwischenbericht zum Stand der Arbeiten im Projekt “Risikoabschätzung des Einsatzes von Biokohle in temperaten Böden - ein Weg zur dauerhaften C-Sequestrierung?” Environment and Geology, Germany. 1–26 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Steiner C, Teixeira M, Zech W. Soil respiration curves as soil fertility indicators in perennial central Amazonian plantations treated with charcoal, and mineral or organic fertilisers. Tropical Sci.47(4),218–230 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• van Zwieten L, Singh B, Joseph S et al. Biochar and emissions of non-CO2 greenhouse gases from soil. In: Biochar for Environmental Management – Science and Technology. Lehmann J, Joseph S (Eds). Earthscan, London, UK, 227–249 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Blackwell P, Riethmuller G, Collins M. Biochar application to soil. In: Biochar for Environmental Management: Science and Technology. Lehmann J, Joseph S (Eds). Earthscan, London, UK, 207–226 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Kimetu J, Lehmann J, Ngoze S et al. Reversibility of soil productivity decline with organic matter of differing quality along a degradation gradient. Ecosystems11(5),726–739 (2008).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaskin JW, Speir RA, Harris K et al.Effect of peanut hull and pine chip biochar on soil nutrients, corn nutrient status, and yield. Agron. J.102(2),623–633 (2010).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oguntunde PG, Fosu M, Ajayi AE, Giesen N. Effects of charcoal production on maize yield, chemical properties and texture of soil. Biol. Fertil. Soils.39(4),295–299 (2004).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Novak J, Busscher W, Watts D et al. Short-term CO2 mineralization after additions of biochar and switchgrass to a Typic Kandiudult. Geoderma.154(3–4),281–288 (2010).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cao X, Harris W. Properties of dairy-manure-derived biochar pertinent to its potential use in remediation. Biores. Technol.101(14),5222–5228 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lal R. Soil carbon sequestration impacts on global climate change and food security. Science304(5677),1623–1627 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Firestone MK, Davidson EA, Andreae MO, Schimel DS. Microbiological basis of NO and N2O production and consumption in soil. In: Exchange of Trace Gases between Terrestrial Ecosystems and the Atmosphere. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., Chichester, UK, 7–21 (1989).
   Google Scholar
• Granli T, Bøckmann OC. Nitrous oxide from agriculture. Norwegian Journal of Agricultural Sciences. Suppl 12, 1–128 (1994).
   Google Scholar
• Crutzen PJ, Mosier AR, Smith KA, Winiwarter W. N2O release from agro-biofuel production negates global warming reduction by replacing fossil fuels. Atmos. Chem. Physics8,389–395 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Kammann C, Müller C, Grünhage L, Jäger H. Elevated CO2 stimulates N2O emissions in permanent grassland. Soil Biol. Biochem.40(9),2194–2205 (2008).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kammann C, Ryan M, Ratering S et al. Treibhausgas-Emissionen (CO2, N2O, CH4) nach Biochar-Applikation (poster presentation). Presented at: Aktiver Klimaschutz und Anpassungsstrategien an den Klimawandel – Beiträge der Agrar – und Forstwirtschaft. Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (BEMLV) and Johann Heinrich von Thünen Institute (vTI), Volkswagenhalle Braunschweig, 128 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Šimek M, Cooper J. The influence of soil pH on denitrification: progress towards the understanding of this interaction over the last 50 years. Europ. J. Soil Sci.53,345–354 (2002).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clough TJ, Kelliher FM, Sherlock RR, Ford CD. Lime and soil moisture effects on nitrous oxide emissions from a urine patch. SSSAJ68,1600–1609 (2004).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yanai Y, Toyota K, Okazaki M. Effects of charcoal addition on N2O emissions from soil resulting from rewetting air-dried soil in short-term laboratory experiments. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr.53(2),181–188 (2007).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith MS, Tiedje JM. The effect of roots on soil denitrification 1. SSSAJ.43(5),951–955 (1979).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klemedtsson L, Svensson BH, Rosswall T. Dinitrogen and nitrous oxide produced by denitrification and nitrification in soil with and without barley plants. Plant Soil.99,303–319 (1987).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mosier AR, Duxbury JM, Freney JR, Heinemeyer O, Minami K. Nitrous oxide emissions from agricultural fields: assessment, measurement and mitigation. Plant Soil181,95–108 (1997).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conrad R. Microbial ecology of methanogens and methanotrophs. In: Adv. Agronomy96,1–63 (2007).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Powlson DS, Goulding KWT, Willison TW, Webster CP, Hütsch BW. The effect of agriculture on methane oxidation in soil. Nutrient Cyc. Agroecosys.49(1–3),59–70 (1997).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradford MA, Ineson P, Wookey PA, Lappin-Scott HM. Soil CH4 oxidation: response to forest clearcutting and thinning. Soil Biol. Biochem.32(7),1035–1038 (2000).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veldkamp E, Weitz AM, Keller M. Management effects on methane fluxes in humid tropical pasture soils. Soil Biol. Biochem.33(11),1493–1499 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Rondon M, Ramirez JA, Lehmann J. Charcoal additions reduce net emissions of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. In: Proceedings of the 3rd USDA Symposium on Greenhouse Gases and Carbon Sequestration in Agriculture and Forestry. University of Delaware, Baltimore, MD, USA, 21–24 March 2005.
   Google Scholar
• Priem A, Christensen S. Methane uptake by a selection of soils in Ghana with different land use. J. Geophys. Res.104(D19),23617–23622 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Castro MS, Mellilo JM, Steudler PA, Chapman JW. Soil moisture as a predictor of methane uptake by temperate forest soils. Can. J. Forest Res.24,1805–1810 (1994).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clough T, Bertram JE, Ray JL et al. Unweathered wood biochar impact on nitrous oxide emissions from a bovine-urine-amended pasture soil. SSSAJ74,852–860 (2010).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spokas K, Koskinen W, Baker J, Reicosky D. Impacts of woodchip biochar additions on greenhouse gas production and sorption/degradation of two herbicides in a Minnesota soil. Chemosphere77(4),574–581 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh BP, Hatton BJ, Singh B, Cowie AL, Kathuria A. Influence of biochars on nitrous oxide emission and nitrogen leaching from two contrasting soils. J. Environ. Qual.39(4),1224 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Zwieten L, Kimber S, Morris S et al. Influence of biochars on flux of N2O and CO2 from Ferrosol. Aust. J. Soil Res.48(7),555–568 (2010).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babel S, Kurniawan TA. Low-cost adsorbents for heavy metals uptake from contaminated water: a review. J. Hazard. Mater.97(1–3),219–243 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohan D, Pittman J. Arsenic removal from water/wastewater using adsorbents – a critical review. J. Hazard. Mater.142(1–2),1–53 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crini G. Non-conventional low-cost adsorbents for dye removal: a review. Bioresource Technol.97(9),1061–1085 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radovic LR. Chemistry and Physics of Carbon. CRC Press, USA (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Lu GQ, Lau DD. Characterisation of sewage sludge-derived adsorbents for H2S removal. Part 2: surface and pore structural evolution in chemical activation. Gas Sep. Purif.10(2),103–111 (1996).
   Google Scholar
• Kadirvelu K, Kavipriya M, Karthika C et al. Utilization of various agricultural wastes for activated carbon preparation and application for the removal of dyes and metal ions from aqueous solutions. Bioresour. Technol.87(1),129–132 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bagreev A, Bandosz T. Efficient hydrogen sulfide adsorbents obtained by pyrolysis of sewage sludge derived fertilizer modified with spent mineral oil. Environ. Sci. Technol.38,345–351 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cao X, Ma L, Cao B, Harris W. Dairy-manure derived biochar effectively sorbs lead and atrazine. Environ. Sci. Technol.43(9),3285–3291 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramakrishnan M, Nagarajan S. Utilization of waste biomass for the removal of basic dye from water. World Appl. Sci J.5,114–120 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Cheng F, LIang J, Zhao J, Tao Z, Chen J. Biomass waste-derived microporous carbons with controlled texture and enhanced hydrogen uptake. Chem. Mater.20,1889–1895 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Budinova T, Savova D, Tsyntsarski B et al. Biomass waste-derived activated carbon for the removal of arsenic and manganese ions from aqueous solutions. Appl. Surf. Sci.255,4650–4657 (2009).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gokee C, Guneysu S, Aydin S, Arayici S. Comparison of activated carbon and pyrolyzed biomass for removal of humic acid from aqueous solution. Open Environ. Pollut. Toxicol. J.1,43–48 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Mohan D, Singh K. Single- and multi-component adsorption of cadmium and zinc activated carbon derived from bagasse – an agricultural waste. Water Res.36,2304–2318 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demir-Cakan R, Baccile N, Antonietti M, Titirici M. Carboxylate-rich carbonaceous materials via one-step hydrothermal carbonization of glucose in the presence of acrylic acid. Chem. Mater.21(3),484–490 (2009).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Namasivayam C, Kavitah D. Removal of Congo Red from water by adsorption onto activated carbon prepared from coir pith, an agricultural solid waste. Dyes Pigments.54,47–58 (2002).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lima I, Marshall W. Granular activated carbons from broiler manure: physical, chemical and adsorptive properties. Bioresour. Technol.96,699–706 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiang P, You J. Use of sewage sludge for manufacturing adsorbents. Canadian J. Chem. Eng.65(6),922–927 (1987).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qian Q, Machida M, Tatsumoto H. Preparation of activated carbons from cattle-manure compost by zinc chloride activation. Bioresour. Technol.98,353–360 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mochidzuki K, Sato N, Sakoda A. Production and characterization of carbonaceous adsorbents from biomass wastes by aqueous phase carbonization. Adsorption11,669–673 (2005).
   Google Scholar
• Lillo-Rodenas MA, Cazorla-Amoros D, Linares-Solano A. Understanding chemical reactions between carbons and NaOH and KOH – an insight into the chemical activation mechanism. Carbon41,267–275 (2003).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Titirici M, Antonietti M, Thomas A. A generalized synthesis of metal oxide hollow spheres using a hydrothermal approach. Chem. Mater.18(16),3808–3812 (2006).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lei Z, Li J, Ke Y et al. Two-step templating route to macroporous or hollow sphere oxides. J. Mater. Chem.11(12),2930–2933 (2001).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu B, Yuan R, Fu X. Structural characterization and photocatalyticactivity of hollow binary ZrO2/TiO2 oxide fibers. J. Solid State Chem.182(3),560–565 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Schneider W, Diller W. Phosgene. In: Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (6th Edition). Wiley-VCH, Weinheim (2002).
   Google Scholar
• The Catalyst Technical Handbook – Be Selective. Johnson Matthey Catalysts, NJ, USA (2005).
   Google Scholar
• Serp P, Figueiredo JL. Carbon Materials for Catalysis. Wiley, NJ, USA (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Du R, Zhu C, Zhang P, Fan R. Selective hydrogenation of aromatic aminoketones by Pd/C catalysis. Synthetic Commun.38(17),2889 (2008).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amorim C, Yuan G, Patterson PM, Keane MA. Catalytic hydrodechlorination over Pd supported on amorphous and structured carbon. J. Catal.234(2),268–281 (2005).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Makowski P, Cakan RD, Antonietti M, Goettmann F, Titirici M. Selective partial hydrogenation of hydroxy aromatic derivatives with palladium nanoparticles supported on hydrophilic carbon. Chem. Commun.8,999–1001 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matos J, Laine J, Herrmann J. Synergy effect in the photocatalytic degradation of phenol on a suspended mixture of titania and activated carbon. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental.18(3–4),281–291 (1998).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mozia S, Toyoda M, Inagaki M, Tryba B, Morawski AW. Application of carbon-coated TiO2 for decomposition of methylene blue in a photocatalytic membrane reactor. J. Hazard. Mater.140(1–2),369–375 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gottschalk C, Libra JA, Saupe A. Ozonation of Water and Waste Water: A Practical Guide to Understanding Ozone and Its Applications. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Zhao L, Chen X, Wang X, et al. One-step solvothermal synthesis of a carbon@TiO2 dyade structure effectively promoting visible-light photocatalysis.Adv. Mater.22(30),3317–3321 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee KB, Beaver MG, Caram HS, Sircar S. Reversible chemisorbents for carbon dioxide and their potential applications. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.47(21),8048–8062 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Day D, Evans R, Lee J, Reicosky D. Economical CO2, SOx, and NOx capture from fossil-fuel utilization with combined renewable hydrogen production and large-scale carbon sequestration. Energy30(14),2558–2579 (2005).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao L, Baccile N, Gross S et al. Sustainable nitrogen-doped carbonaceous materials from biomass derivatives. Carbon48(13),3778–3787 (2010).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White RJ, Antonietti M, Titirici M. Naturally inspired nitrogen doped porous carbon. J. Mater. Chem.19(45),8645–8650 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Zhao L, Bacsik Z, Hedin N et al. Carbon dioxide capture on amine-rich carbonaceous materials derived from glucose. ChemSusChem.3(7),840–845 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ströbel R, Garche J, Moseley P, Jörissen L, Wolf G. Hydrogen storage by carbon materials. J. Power Sources.159(2),781–801 (2006).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antolini E. Formation, microstructural characteristics and stability of carbon supported platinum catalysts for low temperature fuel cells. J. Mater. Sci.38(14),2995–3005 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Paraknowitsch JP, Thomas A, Antonietti M. Carbon colloids prepared by hydrothermal carbonization as efficient fuel for indirect carbon fuel cells. Chem. Mater.21(7),1170–1172 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Murugan AV, Muraliganth T, Manthiram A. One-pot microwave-hydrothermal synthesis and characterization of carbon-coated LiMPO[sub 4] (M = Mn, Fe, and Co) Cathodes. J. Electrochem. Soc.156(2),A79-A83 (2009).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Béguin F, Frackowiakz E. Electrochemical Energy Storage. In: Adsorption by Carbons. Bottani E, Tascon J (Eds). Elsevier, Amsterdam, 593–629 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Béguin F, Frackowiak E. Carbons for Electrochemical Energy Storage and Conversion Systems (1st Edition). CRC Press, USA (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Frackowiak E, Béguin F. Carbon materials for the electrochemical storage of energy in capacitors. Carbon39(6),937–950 (2001).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pandolfo A, Hollenkamp A. Carbon properties and their role in supercapacitors. J. Power Sources.157(1),11–27 (2006).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scrosati B, Garche J. Lithium batteries: Status, prospects and future. J. Power Sources.195(9),2419–2430 (2010).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demir CR, Titirici M, Antonietti M et al. Hydrothermal carbon spheres containing silicon nanoparticles: synthesis and lithium storage performance. Chem. Commun. (Camb.). (32),3759–3761 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Demir Cakan R, Titirici M, Antonietti M et al. Hydrothermal carbon spheres containing silicon nanoparticles: synthesis and lithium storage performance. Chem. Commun. (Camb.). (32),3759–3761 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• US EPA. A Plain English Guide to the EPA Part 503 Biosolids Rule. EPA/832/R-93/003. US EPA, Office of Wastewater Management, DC, USA (1994). Available at:www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/biosolids/503pe
   Google Scholar
• US EPA. Decision-Maker’s Guide to Solid Waste Management, Second Edition. US EPA, Municipal and Industrial Solid Waste Division, DC, USA (1995). Available at:www.p2pays.org/ref/03/02021/02021.pdf
   Google Scholar
• German Fertiliser Law (DüV), Law about the application of fertilisers, soil additives, growing media and plant additives in accordance to good practice as of 1/10/06, last amended through article 18 G as of 7/31/09. Federal Law Gazette2585 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• German Fertiliser Ordinance (DüMV), Ordinance about the placing of fertilisers, soil additives, growing media and plant additives on the market. Federal Law Gazette2524 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• German Biowaste Ordinance (BioAbfV), Ordinance about the utilisation of biowastes on soils used in agriculture, forestry and gardening as of September 21, 1998, last amended through article 5 V as of 10/20/06. Federal Law Gazette2298 (2006).
   Google Scholar
• German Federal Ordinance on Soil Protection and Contaminated Land (BBodSchV) as of 07/12/19999, last amended through article 2 V as of 12/23/2004. Federal Law Gazette3758 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• German Federal Sewage Sludge Ordinance (AbfKlärV) as of 4/15/1992, last amended through article 19 as of 7/29/09. Federal Law Gazette2542 (1992).
   Google Scholar

▪ ;Websites

• US Energy Information Administration. World Carbon Dioxide Emissions from the Consumption and Flaring of Fossil Fuels (Million Metric Tons of Carbon Dioxide), 1980–2006 (2008). www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/ieal
   Google Scholar
• International Biochar Initiative (IBI). Frequently Asked Questions about Biochar. www.biochar-international.org/biochar/faqs (Accessed 15 October 2010)
   Google Scholar
• Reichenbach J. ISTEAC StudyReport: Collection and Composition of Source Separated Biowaste in Different Settings in Germany 2005. www.wadef.com/projects/isteac/StudyReport__Biowaste_Separation_Effects.Work_Results.pdf (Accessed 15 October 2010)
   Google Scholar
• Barker J, Zublena JP, Walls FR. Animal and Poultry Manure: Production & Characterization. North Carolina A&T State University Cooperative Extension 2001. www.bae.ncsu.edu/programs/extension/manure/awm/program/barker/a&pmp&c/cover_page_apmp&c.html
   Google Scholar
• USEPA. Background Document for the Final Comprehensive Procurement Guideline (CPG) IV and Final recovered Materials Advisory Notice (RMAN) IV 2004. www.epa.gov/wastes/conserve/tools/cpg/pdf/cpg4final_docket.pdf (Accessed 15 October 2010)
   Google Scholar
• Granatstein C, Kruger C, Collins H, Galinato S, Garcia-Perez M, Yoder J. Use of Biochar from the Pyrolysis of Waste Organic Material as a Soil Amendment 2009. http://afrsweb.usda.gov/research/publications/publications.htm?seq_no_115=245778(Accessed 15 October 2010).
   Google Scholar
• International Biochar Initiative. Draft Guidelines for a Safe Biochar Industry 2009. http://cees.colorado.edu/docs/characterization/IBI%20Working%20Draft%20Characterisation_Draft_V9_Charaterization_Paper_NABC2009.doc (Accessed 15 October 2010).
   Google Scholar
• EPA. Compost Use on State Highway Applications. Composting Council Research and Education Foundation and US Composting Council. www.epa.gov/osw/conserve/rrr/composting/highway
   Google Scholar
• CalRecycle. Compost Quality Standards 2004. www.calrecycle.ca.gov/organics/products/Quality/CQStandards.htm (Accessed 15 October 2010)
   Google Scholar
• Ohio Administrative Code. Chapter 3745–3727 Solid Waste and Infectious Waste Regulations. http://codes.ohio.gov/oac/3745–3727–46.
   Google Scholar