COVID-19 Pandemic: an Overview of epidemiology, pathogenesis, Diagnostics and Potential Vaccines and Therapeutics

References

• Jeevanandam J , PalK , DanquahMK. Virus-like nanoparticles as a novel delivery tool in gene therapy. Biochimie157, 38–47 (2019).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aljabali AA , SainsburyF , LomonossoffGP , EvansDJ. Cowpea mosaic virus unmodified empty virus-like particles loaded with metal and metal oxide. Small.6(7), 818–821 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cascella M , RajnikM , CuomoA , DulebohnSC , DiNapoli R. Features, evaluation and treatment coronavirus (COVID-19). StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL) (2020).
   Google Scholar
• Chen WH , StrychU , HotezPJ , BottazziME. The SARS-CoV-2 vaccine pipeline: an overview. Curr Trop Med Rep. doi:10.1007/s40475-020-00201-61–4 (2020).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ferretti L , WymantC , KendallMet al. Quantifying SARS-CoV-2 transmission suggests epidemic control with digital contact tracing. Science doi:10.1126/science.abb6936 (2020).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wrapp D , WangN , CorbettKSet al. Cryo-EM structure of the 2019-nCoV spike in the prefusion conformation. Science367(6483), 1260–1263 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woo PC , HuangY , LauSK , YuenK-Y. Coronavirus genomics and bioinformatics analysis. Vruses2(8), 1804–1820 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drexler JF , Gloza-RauschF , GlendeJet al. Genomic characterization of severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus in European bats and classification of coronaviruses based on partial RNA-dependent RNA polymerase gene sequences. J. Virol.84(21), 11336–11349 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yin Y , WunderinkRG. MERS, SARS and other coronaviruses as causes of pneumonia. Respirology23(2), 130–137 (2018).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peiris J , LaiS , PoonLet al. Coronavirus as a possible cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome. Lancet361(9366), 1319–1325 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaki AM , Van BoheemenS , BestebroerTM , OsterhausAD , FouchierRA. Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with pneumonia in Saudi Arabia. N. Engl. J. Med.367(19), 1814–1820 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Imai N , DorigattiI , CoriA , DonnellyC , RileyS , FergusonNM. Report 2: Estimating the potential total number of novel Coronavirus cases in Wuhan City, China.Imperial College London (2020).
   Google Scholar
• Din MaU , BoppanaLKT. An update on the 2019-nCoV outbreak. Am. J. Infect. Control doi:10.1016/j.ajic.2020.01.023 (2020) ( Epub ahead of print).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu F , XuA , ZhangYet al. Patients of COVID-19 may benefit from sustained lopinavir-combined regimen and the increase of eosinophil may predict the outcome of COVID-19 progression. Int. J. Infect. Dis. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2020.03.013 (2020).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RVB . Division of viral diseases. Real-time rt-pcr panel for detection 2019- novel coronavirus. (2020).www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/uscdcrt-pcr-panel-for-detectioninstructions.pdf?sfvrsn=3aa07934_2
   Google Scholar
• Andersen KG , RambautA , LipkinWI , HolmesEC , GarryRF. The proximal origin of SARS-CoV-2. Nat. Med.26(4), 1–3 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fan J , LiuX , PanW , DouglasM , BaoS. Epidemiology of 2019 Novel Coronavirus Disease-19 in Gansu Province, China, 2020. Emerg. Infect. Dis.26(6), (2020).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahn DG , ShinHJ , KimMHet al. Current Status of Epidemiology, Diagnosis, Therapeutics, and Vaccines for Novel Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). J. Microbiol. Biotechnol.30(3), 313–324 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen Z , ZhangW , LuYet al. From SARS-CoV to Wuhan 2019-nCoV Outbreak: Similarity of Early Epidemic and Prediction of Future Trends. Cell-Host-Microbe-D-20-00063 (2020). https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3528722
   Google Scholar
• Hoffmann M , Kleine-WeberH , SchroederSet al. SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. Cell181(2), 271–280.e8 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziebuhr J , SnijderEJ , GorbalenyaAE. Virus-encoded proteinases and proteolytic processing in the Nidovirales. J. Gen. Virol.81(4), 853–879 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Báez-Santos YM , JohnSES , MesecarAD. The SARS-coronavirus papain-like protease: structure, function and inhibition by designed antiviral compounds. Antiviral Res.115, 21–38 (2015).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao Y , WeiY , ShenS , ZhangM , ChenF. Appealing for efficient, well organized clinical trials on COVID-19. MedRxiv.20031476, doi:10.1101/2020.03.05.20031476 (2020) ( Epub ahead of print).
   Google Scholar
• Wan Y , ShangJ , GrahamR , BaricRS , LiF. Receptor recognition by the novel coronavirus from Wuhan: an analysis based on decade-long structural studies of SARS coronavirus. J. Virol.94(7), (2020).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peng Z , Xing-LouY , Xian-GuangW. A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. [J/OL]. Nature579, 270–273 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu F , ZhaoS , YuB. A new coronavirus associated with human respiratory disease in China. Nature579(7798), 265–269 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu Z , ShiL , WangYet al. Pathological findings of COVID-19 associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Lancet Respir. Med.8(4), 420–422 (2020). doi: 10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30076-X.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu J , LiuJ , ZhaoXet al. Clinical characteristics of imported cases of COVID-19 in Jiangsu province: a multicenter descriptive study. Clin. Infect. Dis.pii: ciaa199doi: 10.1093/cid/ciaa199 (2020) ( Epub ahead of print).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO . Coronavirus disease (COVID-2019) situation reports. (2020). www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/situation-reports
   Google Scholar
• Al Johani S , HajeerAH. MERS-CoV diagnosis: an update. J. Infect. Public Health9(3), 216–219 (2016).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO . Novel coronavirus (2019-ncov) technical guidance: laboratory testing for 2019-ncov in humans. (2020). www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/technical-guidance/laboratory-guidance
   Google Scholar
• Liu C , ZhouQ , LiYet al. Research and Development on Therapeutic Agents and Vaccines for COVID-19 and Related Human Coronavirus Diseases. ACS Central Science6(3), 315–331 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corman VM , LandtO , KaiserMet al. Detection of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) by real-time RT-PCR. Eurosurveillance25(3), (2020).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim M-N , KoYJ , SeongM-W , KimJ-S , ShinB-M , SungH. Analytical and clinical validation of six commercial Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus RNA detection kits based on real-time reverse-transcription PCR. Ann. Lab. Med.36(5), 450–456 (2016).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shirato K , YanoT , SenbaSet al. Detection of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus using reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP). Virol. J.11(1), 139 (2014).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hashemzadeh MS , RasouliR , ZahraeiBet al. Development of dual taqman based one-step rrt-pcr assay panel for rapid and accurate diagnostic test of MERS-CoV: a novel human coronavirus, ahead of Hajj pilgrimage. Iran Red. Crescent. Med. J.18(11), e23874 (2016).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lau SK , CheX-Y , WooPCet al. SARS coronavirus detection methods. Emerg. Infect. Dis.11(7), 1108 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lau LT , FungY-WW , WongFP-Fet al. A real-time PCR for SARS-coronavirus incorporating target gene pre-amplification. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun.312(4), 1290–1296 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiang SS , ChenT-C , YangJ-Yet al. Sensitive and quantitative detection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection by real-time nested polymerase chain reaction. Clin. Infect. Dis.38(2), 293–296 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• He Q , ChongKH , ChngHHet al. Development of a Western blot assay for detection of antibodies against coronavirus causing severe acute respiratory syndrome. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol.11(2), 417–422 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hui RK , ZengF , ChanCM , YuenK , PeirisJS , LeungFC. Reverse transcriptase PCR diagnostic assay for the coronavirus associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome. J. Clin. Microbiol.42(5), 1994–1999 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu JT , LeungK , LeungGM. Nowcasting and forecasting the potential domestic and international spread of the 2019-nCoV outbreak originating in Wuhan, China: a modelling study. Lancet395(10225), 689–697 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pang J , WangMX , AngIYHet al. Potential rapid diagnostics, vaccine and therapeutics for 2019 novel Coronavirus (2019-ncoV): a systematic review. J. Clin. Med.9(3), 623 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Detection of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-ncov) in suspected human cases by rt-pcr lks faculty of medicine school of public health 2020). www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/peiris-protocol-16-1-20.pdf?sfvrsn=af1aac73_4
   Google Scholar
• Kelly-Cirino C , MazzolaLT , ChuaA , OxenfordCJ , Van KerkhoveMD. An updated roadmap for MERS-CoV research and product development: focus on diagnostics. BMJ Glob. Health4(Suppl. 2), e001105 (2019).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nguyen T , DuongBang D , WolffA. 2019 Novel Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19): Paving the Road for Rapid Detection and Point-of-Care Diagnostics. Micromachines11(3), 306 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xiong X , TortoriciMA , SnijderJet al. Glycan shield and fusion activation of a deltacoronavirus spike glycoprotein fine-tuned for enteric Infections. J. Virol.92(4), (2018).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song W , GuiM , WangX , XiangY. Cryo-EM structure of the SARS coronavirus spike glycoprotein in complex with its host cell receptor ACE2. PLoS Pathog.14(8), e1007236 (2018).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vankadari N , WilceJA. Emerging WuHan (COVID-19) coronavirus: glycan shield and structure prediction of spike glycoprotein and its interaction with human CD26. Emerg. Microbes Infect.9(1), 601–604 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bgi develops real-time fluorescent rt-pcr kit for detecting the 2019 novel coronavirus 2020). www.bgi.com/global/company/news/bgi-develops-real-time-dna-based-kit-for-detecting-the-2019-novel-coronavirus/
   Google Scholar
• Lin J , ZhangJ-S , SuNet al. Safety and immunogenicity from a phase I trial of inactivated severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus vaccine. Antivir. Ther.12(7), 1107 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beigel JH , VoellJ , KumarPet al. Safety and tolerability of a novel, polyclonal human anti-MERS coronavirus antibody produced from transchromosomic cattle: a phase 1 randomised, double-blind, single-dose-escalation study. Lancet Infect. Dis.18(4), 410–418 (2018).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Modjarrad K , RobertsCC , MillsKTet al. Safety and immunogenicity of an anti-Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus DNA vaccine: a phase 1, open-label, single-arm, dose-escalation trial. Lancet Infect. Dis.19(9), 1013–1022 (2019).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evaluate the safety, tolerability and immunogenicity study of gls-5300 in healthy volunteers. (2020). https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/study/NCT03721718?term=vaccine&cond=Mers+CoV&draw=2&rank=7
   Google Scholar
• Efficacy and safety of hydroxychloroquine for treatment of pneumonia caused by 2019-ncov (hc-ncov) 2020). https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04261517
   Google Scholar
• Ahmed SF , QuadeerAA , MckayMR. Preliminary identification of potential vaccine targets for the COVID-19 Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Based on SARS-CoV Immunological Studies. Viruses12(3), (2020).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen WH , HotezPJ , BottazziME. Potential for developing a SARS-CoV receptor-binding domain (RBD) recombinant protein as a heterologous human vaccine against coronavirus infectious disease (COVID)-19. Hum. Vaccin. Immunother. doi:10.1080/21645515.2020.17405601–4 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen J . Vaccine designers take first shots at COVID-19. Science368(6486), 14–16 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Enayatkhani M , HasaniazadM , FaeziSet al. Reverse vaccinology approach to design a novel multi-epitope vaccine candidate against COVID-19: an in silico study. J. Biomol. Struct. Dyn., doi:10.1080/07391102.2020.17564111–19 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peeples L . News Feature: avoiding pitfalls in the pursuit of a COVID-19 vaccine. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA117(15), 8218–8221 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosales-Mendoza S , Marquez-EscobarVA , Gonzalez-OrtegaO , Nieto-GomezR , Arevalo-VillalobosJI. What does plant-based vaccine technology offer to the fight against COVID-19?Vaccines8(2), (2020).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shoenfeld Y . Corona (COVID-19) time musings: our involvement in COVID-19 pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment and vaccine planning. Autoimmun. Rev. doi:10.1016/j.autrev.2020.102538 (2020) ( Epub ahead of print).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thanh Le T , AndreadakisZ , KumarAet al. The COVID-19 vaccine development landscape. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. doi:10.1038/d41573-020-00073-5 (2020) ( Epub ahead of print).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benvenuto D , GiovanettiM , CiccozziA , SpotoS , AngelettiS , CiccozziM. The 2019-new coronavirus epidemic: evidence for virus evolution. J. Med. Virol.92(4), 455–459 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosa SGV , SantosWC. Clinical trials on drug repositioning for COVID-19 treatment. (2020) 44, e40https://doi.org/10.26633/RPSP.2020.40
   Google Scholar
• Choudhary S , MalikYS , TomarS , TomarS. Identification of SARS-CoV-2 cell entry inhibitors by drug repurposing using in silico structure-based virtual screening approach (2020). 10.26434/chemrxiv.12005988.v2
   Google Scholar
• Farag A , WangP , AhmedM , SadekH. Identification of FDA approved drugs targeting COVID-19 virus by structure-based drug repositioning (2020). 10.26434/chemrxiv.12003930.v1.
   Google Scholar
• Center for Disease Control and Prevention . Interim clinical guidance for management of patients with confirmed coronavirus disease (COVID-19). (2020). www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/clinical-guidance-management-patients.html
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization . Clinical management of severe acute respiratory infection (SARI) when COVID-19 disease is suspected. March 2020 (2020). www.who.int/publications-detail/clinical-management-of-severe-acute-respiratory-infection-when-novel-coronavirus-(ncov)-infection-is-suspected
   Google Scholar
• Nicholas J , BeechingTEF , FowlerRobert. BMJ Best Practice: coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) (2020). https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/3000168
   Google Scholar
• Favalli EG , IngegnoliF , DeLucia O , CincinelliG , CimazR , CaporaliR. COVID-19 infection and rheumatoid arthritis: faraway, so close!Autoimmun. Rev.19(5), 102523 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autrev.2020.102523
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cao B , WangY , WenDet al. A trial of lopinavir–ritonavir in adults hospitalized with severe Covid-19. N. Engl. J. Med.doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2001282 (2020) ( Epub ahead of print).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cai Q , YangM , LiuDet al. Experimental Treatment with Favipiravir for COVID-19: An Open-Label Control Study. Engineeringdoi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2020.03.007 (2020).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holshue ML , DeboltC , LindquistSet al. First case of 2019 novel coronavirus in the United States. N. Engl. J. Med.382(10), 929–936 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen N , ZhouM , DongXet al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet395(10223), 507–513 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang D , HuB , HuCet al. Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus – infected pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA323(11), 1061–1069 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergin C , PhilbinM , GilvarryP , O'connorM , KingF. Specific Antiviral Therapy in the Clinical Management of Acute Respiratory Infection with SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19). ww.hse.ie/eng/about/who/acute-hospitals-division/drugs-management-programme/guidelines/specific-antiviral-therapy-in-the-clinical-management-of-acute-respiratory-infection-with-sars-cov-2-covid-19.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Dong L , HuS , GaoJ. Discovering drugs to treat coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Search Results Featured snippet from the web Drug Discov Ther.14(1), 58–60 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang Y-C , TungY-A , LeeK-H et al. Potential therapeutic agents for COVID-19 based on the analysis of protease and RNA polymerase docking. 2020020242 (2020). 10.20944/preprints202002.0242.v1
   Google Scholar
• Cao B , WangY , WenDet al. A trial of lopinavir-ritonavir in adults hospitalized with severe Covid-19. N. Engl. J. Med. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2001282 (2020) ( Epub ahead of print).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feikin DR , SchuchatA , KolczakMet al. Mortality from invasive pneumococcal pneumonia in the era of antibiotic resistance, 1995–1997. Am. J. Public Health90(2), 223 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zheng XW , TaoG , ZhangYW , YangGN , HuangP. Drug interaction monitoring of lopinavir / ritonavir in COVID-19 patients with cancer. Zhonghua Nei Ke Za Zhi59(8(4)), 420–422 (2020).
   Google Scholar
• Clinicaltrials.Gov . Clinical trials on Favipiravir role in SARS-COV-2 infection. (2020). https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/results?cond=covid+19&term=Favipiravir+&cntry=&state=&city=&dist=
   Google Scholar
• Wang M , CaoR , ZhangLet al. Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro. Cell Res.30(3), 269–271 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clinicaltrials.Gov . Study to Evaluate the Safety and Antiviral Activity of Remdesivir (GS-5734™) in Participants With Severe Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19). (2020). https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04292899
   Google Scholar
• Barlow A , LandolfKM , BarlowBet al. Review of Emerging Pharmacotherapy for the Treatment of Coronavirus Disease 2019. Pharmacotherapy doi:10.1002/phar.2398 (2020) ( Epub ahead of print).
   Google Scholar
• Hillaker E , BelferJJ , BondiciA , MuradH , DumkowLE. Delayed Initiation of Remdesivir in a COVID-19 Positive Patient. Pharmacotherapy doi:10.1002/phar.2403 (2020) ( Epub ahead of print).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Health NIO . NIH clinical trial of remdesivir to treat COVID-19 begins. (2020). www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/nih-clinical-trial-remdesivir-treat-covid-19-begins
   Google Scholar
• Elfiky AA . Anti-HCV, nucleotide inhibitors, repurposing against COVID-19. Life Sci.248, 117477 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang L , LiuY. Potential interventions for novel coronavirus in China: a systematic review. J. Med. Virol.92(5), 479–490 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clinicaltrials.Gov . An Open-label Randomized Controlled Trial on Lopinavir/ Ritonavir, Ribavirin and Interferon Beta 1b Combination Versus Lopinavir/ Ritonavir Alone, as Treatment for 2019 Novel Coronavirus Infection. (2020). https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04276688
   Google Scholar
• Xu K , CaiH , ShenYet al. Management of corona virus disease-19 (COVID-19): the Zhejiang experience. Zhejiang da xue xue bao. Yi xue ban=Journal of Zhejiang University. Med. Sci.49(1), 0–0 (2020).
   Google Scholar
• Deng L , LiC , ZengQet al. Arbidol combined with LPV/r versus LPV/r alone against Corona Virus Disease 2019: a retrospective cohort study. J. Infect. (2020). doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2020.03.002 ( Epub ahead of print).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clinicaltrials.Gov . Clinical Study of Arbidol Hydrochloride Tablets in the Treatment of Pneumonia Caused by Novel Coronavirus. (2020). https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04260594
   Google Scholar
• Moskal M , BekerW , RoszakRet al. Suggestions for second-pass anti-COVID-19 drugs based on the artificial intelligence measures of molecular similarity, shape and pharmacophore distribution. (2020). https://doi.org/10.26434/chemrxiv.12084690.v2
   Google Scholar
• Kearney J . Chloroquine as a potential treatment and prevention measure for the 2019 novel coronavirus: a review. 2020030275 (2020). doi: 10.20944/preprints202003.0275.v1.
   Google Scholar
• Gao J , TianZ , YangX. Breakthrough: chloroquine phosphate has shown apparent efficacy in treatment of COVID-19 associated pneumonia in clinical studies. Bio. Sci. Trends.14(1), 72–73; advpub (2020). doi: 10.5582/bst.2020.01047.
   Google Scholar
• Sahraei Z , ShabaniM , ShokouhiS , SaffaeiA. Aminoquinolines Against Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): Chloroquine or Hydroxychloroquine. Int J Antimicrob Agents. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105945105945 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Philippe Gautreta J-CL , PhilippeParolaa , VanThuan Hoanget al. Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID-19: results of an open-label non-randomized clinical trial. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents – In Press 17 March 2020. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents105949 doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105949 (2020).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Liu J , CaoR , XuMet al. Hydroxychloroquine, a less toxic derivative of chloroquine, is effective in inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 infection in vitro. Cell. Dis.6(1), 1–4 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yao X , YeF , ZhangMet al. In Vitro Antiviral activity and projection of optimized dosing design of hydroxychloroquine for the treatment of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Clin. Infect. Dis.pii: ciaa237 (2020). doi: 10.1093/cid/ciaa237 ( Epub ahead of print).
   Google Scholar
• Srivatsan Padmanabhan M . Potential dual therapeutic approach against SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 with nitazoxanide and hydroxychloroquine.
   Google Scholar
• Chctr.Org . Clinical Trials on Chloroquine for SARS-COV-2 infection. (2020). http://www.chictr.org.cn/searchprojen.aspx
   Google Scholar
• Clinicaltrials.Gov . Clinical trials on chloroquine (2020). https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/results?cond=Covid+19&term=chloroquine&cntry=&state=&city=&dist=
   Google Scholar
• Clinicaltrials.Gov . Various Combination of Protease Inhibitors, Oseltamivir, Favipiravir, and Chloroquin for Treatment of COVID19: A Randomized Control Trial (THDMS-COVID19). (2020). https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04303299
   Google Scholar
• Gordon DE , JangGM , BouhaddouMet al. A SARS-CoV-2-human protein-protein interaction map reveals drug targets and potential drug-repurposing. BioRxiv 002386 doi:10.1101/2020.03.22.002386 (2020).
   Google Scholar
• Devaux CA , RolainJM , ColsonP , RaoultD. New insights on the antiviral effects of chloroquine against coronavirus: what to expect for COVID-19?Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105938 (2020).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarzi-Puttini P , GiorgiV , SirottiSet al. COVID-19, cytokines and immunosuppression: what can we learn from severe acute respiratory syndrome? Clin. Exp. Rheumatol. 38(2), 337–342 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conti P , RonconiG , CaraffaAet al. Induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1 and IL-6) and lung inflammation by coronavirus-19 (COVI-19 or SARS-CoV-2): anti-inflammatory strategies. J. Biol. Reg. Homeos AG34(2), (2020). doi:10.23812/CONTI-E ( Epub ahead of print).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gabay C , EmeryP , Van VollenhovenRet al. Tocilizumab monotherapy versus adalimumab monotherapy for treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (ADACTA): a randomised, double-blind, controlled phase 4 trial. Lancet381(9877), 1541–1550 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chisholm-Burns MA , WellsBG , SchwinghammerTL. Pharmacotherapy Principles and Practice.McGraw-Hill,NY, USA (2016).
   Google Scholar
• Yokota S , ImagawaT , MoriMet al. Efficacy and safety of tocilizumab in patients with systemic-onset juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, withdrawal phase III trial. Lancet371(9617), 998–1006 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mehta P , McauleyDF , BrownM , SanchezE , TattersallRS , MansonJJ. COVID-19: consider cytokine storm syndromes and immunosuppression. Lancet395(10229), P1033–1034 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu X , HanM , LiTet al. Effective treatment of severe COVID-19 patients with tocilizumab. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. 202005615 doi:10.1073/pnas.2005615117.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clinicaltrials.Gov . Tocilizumab in COVID-19 Pneumonia (TOCIVID-19) (TOCIVID-19). (2020). https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04317092?term=tocilizumab&cond=Covid+19&draw=2&rank=1
   Google Scholar
• Clinicaltrials.Gov . Tocilizumab for SARS-CoV2 Severe Pneumonitis (NCT04315480). (2020). https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04315480
   Google Scholar
• Chctr.Org . Favipiravir Combined With Tocilizumab in the Treatment of novel coronavirus pneumonia (COVID-19) - A Multicenter, Randomized, Controlled Trial (2020). www.chictr.org.cn/showprojen.aspx?proj=51126
   Google Scholar
• Gao J , TianZ , YangX. Breakthrough: chloroquine phosphate has shown apparent efficacy in treatment of COVID-19 associated pneumonia in clinical studies. Biosci Trends14(1), 72–73 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clinicaltrials.Gov . Evaluation of the efficacy and safety of sarilumab in hospitalized patients with COVID-19. (2020). https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04315298
   Google Scholar
• Assoun S , BrosseauS , SteinmetzC , GounantV , ZalcmanG. Bevacizumab in advanced lung cancer: state of the art. Future Oncol.13(28), 2515–2535 (2017).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clinicaltrials.Gov . The efficacy and safety of bevacizumab in severe or critical patients with COVID-19 pneumonia – a multi-centered randomized controlledclinical trial. (2020). https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04305106?term=Bevacizumab&cond=covid+19&draw=2&rank=1
   Google Scholar
• Wang Y , JiangW , HeQet al. Early, low-dose and short-term application of corticosteroid treatment in patients with severe COVID-19 pneumonia: single-center experience from Wuhan, China. MedRxiv. doi:10.1101/2020.03.06.20032342 (2020) ( Epub ahead of print).
   Google Scholar
• Zhou Y-H , QinY-Y , LuY-Qet al. Effectiveness of glucocorticoid therapy in patients with severe novel coronavirus pneumonia: protocol of a randomized controlled trial. Chin. Med. J. doi:10.1097/CM9.0000000000000791 (2020) ( Epub ahead of print).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clinicaltrials.Gov . Glucocorticoid therapy for novel coronavirus. (2020). https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04244591?term=Glucocorticoid&cond=COVID+19&draw=2&rank=1
   Google Scholar
• Doss M . Treatment of COVID-19 with individualized immune boosting interventions. 2020030319, doi: 10.20944/preprints202003.0319.v1 (2020).
   Google Scholar
• Caly L , DruceJD , CattonMG , JansDA , WagstaffKM. The FDA-approved drug ivermectin inhibits the replication of SARS-CoV-2 in vitro. Antivir. Res.178, 104787 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel A , DesaiS. Ivermectin in COVID-19 related critical illness. Available at SSRN 3570270 (2020). https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3570270
   Google Scholar
• Patrì A , FabbrociniG. Hydroxychloroquine and ivermectin: a synergistic combination for COVID-19 chemoprophylaxis and/or treatment?.J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.PII: S0190-9622(20)30557-0doi: 10.1016/j.jaad.2020.04.017 (2020) ( Epub ahead of print).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrison C . Coronavirus puts drug repurposing on the fast track. Nat. Biotechnol.38(4), 379–381 (2020). doi: 10.1038/d41587-020-00003-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen L , DengH , CuiHet al. Inflammatory responses and inflammation-associated diseases in organs. Oncotarget9(6), 7204–7218 (2018).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhou Y , HouY , ShenJ , HuangY , MartinW , ChengF. Network-based drug repurposing for novel coronavirus 2019-nCoV/SARS-CoV-2. Cell Discov.6, 14 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richardson P , GriffinI , TuckerCet al. Baricitinib as potential treatment for 2019-nCoV acute respiratory disease. Lancet395(10223), e30–e31 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tan D-X , KorkmazA , ReiterRJ , ManchesterLC. Ebola virus disease: potential use of melatonin as a treatment. J. PIneal Res.57(4), 381–384 (2014).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tan DX , KorkmazA , ReiterRJ , ManchesterLC. Ebola virus disease: potential use of melatonin as a treatment. J. Pineal Res.57(4), 381–384 (2014).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glowacka I , BertramS , HerzogPet al. Differential downregulation of ACE2 by the spike proteins of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus and human coronavirus NL63. J. Virol.84(2), 1198–1205 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kruse RL . Therapeutic strategies in an outbreak scenario to treat the novel coronavirus originating in Wuhan, China. F1000 Res.9, 72 (2020).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wong SK , LiW , MooreMJ , ChoeH , FarzanM. A 193-amino acid fragment of the SARS coronavirus S protein efficiently binds angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. J. Biol. Chem.279(5), 3197–3201 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dong X , FuJ , YinXet al. Emodin: a review of its pharmacology, toxicity and pharmacokinetics. Phytother. Res.30(8), 1207–1218 (2016).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang D-H , WuK-L , ZhangX , DengS-Q , PengB. In silico screening of Chinese herbal medicines with the potential to directly inhibit 2019 novel coronavirus. J. Integr. Med.18(2), 152–158 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu X , WangX-J. Potential inhibitors for 2019-nCoV coronavirus M protease from clinically approved medicines. bioRxiv47(2), 119–121 (2020).
   Google Scholar
• Anand K , ZiebuhrJ , WadhwaniP , MestersJR , HilgenfeldR. Coronavirus main proteinase (3CLpro) structure: basis for design of anti-SARS drugs. Science300(5626), 1763–1767 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsu M-F , KuoC-J , ChangK-Tet al. Mechanism of the maturation process of SARS-CoV 3CL protease. J. Biol. Chem.280(35), 31257–31266 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang Y , IslamMS , WangJ , LiY , ChenX. Traditional Chinese medicine in the treatment of patients infected with 2019-new coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2): a review and perspective. Int. J. Biol. Sci.16(10), 1708–1717 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luo H , TangQ-L , ShangY-Xet al. Can Chinese medicine be used for prevention of corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19)? A review of historical classics, research evidence and current prevention programs. Chin. J. Integr. Med.26, 243–250 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ren J , ZhangA-H , WangX-J. Traditional Chinese Medicine for COVID-19 Treatment. Pharmacol. Res.155, 104743 (2020). doi: 10.1016/j.phrs.2020.104743.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chavez S , LongB , KoyfmanA , LiangSY. Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19): a primer for emergency physicians. Am. J. Emerg. Med. pii: S0735-6757(20)30178-9 doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2020.03.036 ( Epub ahead of print).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jin Y-H , CaiL , ChengZ-Set al. A rapid advice guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) infected pneumonia (standard version). Military Medical Research.7(1), 4 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu C , ZhouQ , LiYet al. Research and development on therapeutic agents and vaccines for COVID-19 and related human coronavirus diseases. ACS Central Sci.6(3), 315–331 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar