7,958
Views
59
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Special Focus Review

Vaccination against trypanosomiasis

Can it be done or is the trypanosome truly the ultimate immune destroyer and escape artist?

&
Pages 1225-1233 | Received 21 Jun 2011, Accepted 22 Sep 2011, Published online: 01 Nov 2011

REFERENCES

  • Raper J, Fung R, Ghiso J, Nussenzweig V, Tomlinson S. Characterization of a novel trypanosome lytic factor from human serum. Infect Immun 1999; 67:1910 - 6; PMID: 10085035
  • Barth P. A new method for the isolation of the trypanocidal factor from normal human serum. Acta Trop 1989; 46:71 - 3; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0001-706X(89)90019-3; PMID: 2566265
  • Shaw A. The economics of African trypanosomiasis. in The trypanosomiasis edited by I Maudlin, P Holmes & M Miles Wallingford: CABI Publishing 2004.
  • Desquesnes M, Dia ML. Mechanical transmission of Trypanosoma congolense in cattle by the African tabanid Atylotus agrestis. Exp Parasitol 2003; 105:226 - 31; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.exppara.2003.12.014; PMID: 14990316
  • Desquesnes M, Dia ML. Mechanical transmission of Trypanosoma vivax in cattle by the African tabanid Atylotus fuscipes. Vet Parasitol 2004; 119:9 - 19; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2003.10.015; PMID: 15036572
  • Otte MJ, Abuabara JY. Transmission of South American Trypanosoma vivax by the neotropical horsefly Tabanus nebulosus. Acta Trop 1991; 49:73 - 6; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0001-706X(91)90033-G; PMID: 1678579
  • Brun R, Hecker H, Lun ZR. Trypanosoma evansi and T. equiperdum: distribution, biology, treatment and phylogenetic relationship (a review). Vet Parasitol 1998; 79:95 - 107; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4017(98)00146-0; PMID: 9806490
  • WHO. Human African trypanosomiasis: number of new cases drops to historically low level in 50 years. Available at: http://whoint/neglected_diseases/integrated_media/integrated_media_hat_june_2010/en/indexhtml 2010.
  • Xong HV, Vanhamme L, Chamekh M, Chimfwembe CE, Van Den Abbeele J, Pays A, et al. A VSG expression site-associated gene confers resistance to human serum in Trypanosoma rhodesiense. Cell 1998; 95:839 - 46; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81706-7; PMID: 9865701
  • De Greef C, Hamers R. The serum resistance-associated (SRA) gene of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense encodes a variant surface glycoprotein-like protein. Mol Biochem Parasitol 1994; 68:277 - 84; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0166-6851(94)90172-4; PMID: 7739673
  • Kieft R, Capewell P, Turner CM, Veitch NJ, MacLeod A, Hajduk S. Mechanism of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (group 1) resistance to human trypanosome lytic factor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2010; 107:16137 - 41; http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1007074107; PMID: 20805508
  • Simarro PP, Cecchi G, Paone M, Franco JR, Diarra A, Ruiz JA, et al. The Atlas of human African trypanosomiasis: a contribution to global mapping of neglected tropical diseases. Int J Health Geogr 2010; 9:57; http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1476-072X-9-57; PMID: 21040555
  • Courtin F, Jamonneau V, Duvallet G, Garcia A, Coulibaly B, Doumenge JP, et al. Sleeping sickness in West Africa (1906-2006): changes in spatial repartition and lessons from the past. Trop Med Int Health 2008; 13:334 - 44; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3156.2008.02007.x; PMID: 18397396
  • Waiswa C, Kabasa JD. Experiences with an in-training community service model in the control of zoonotic sleeping sickness in Uganda. J Vet Med Educ 2010; 37:276 - 81; http://dx.doi.org/10.3138/jvme.37.3.276; PMID: 20847337
  • Murray M, Morrison WI, Whitelaw DD. Host susceptibility to African trypanosomiasis: trypanotolerance. Adv Parasitol 1982; 21:1 - 68; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0065-308X(08)60274-2; PMID: 6762064
  • Naessens J, Leak SG, Kennedy DJ, Kemp SJ, Teale AJ. Responses of bovine chimaeras combining trypanosomosis resistant and susceptible genotypes to experimental infection with Trypanosoma congolense. Vet Parasitol 2003; 111:125 - 42; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4017(02)00360-6; PMID: 12531289
  • Jamonneau V, Ravel S, Garcia A, Koffi M, Truc P, Laveissiere C, et al. Characterization of Trypanosoma brucei s.l. infecting asymptomatic sleeping-sickness patients in Cote d'Ivoire: a new genetic group?. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 2004; 98:329 - 37; http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/000349804225003406; PMID: 15228714
  • Jamonneau V, Ravel S, Garcia A, Koffi M, Truc P, Laveissiere C, et al. Characterization of Trypanosoma brucei s.l. infecting asymptomatic sleeping-sickness patients in Cote d'Ivoire: a new genetic group?. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 2004; 98:329 - 37; http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/000349804225003406; PMID: 15228714
  • Wery M, Burke J. Human “healthy carriers” of Trypanosoma (brucei type) discovered by immunofluorescence test in the Republique Democratique du Congo. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1972; 66:332 - 3; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0035-9203(72)90209-X; PMID: 4558826
  • Buyst H. The epidemiology of sleeping sickness in the historical Luangwa valley. Ann Soc Belg Med Trop 1977; 57:349 - 59; PMID: 345980
  • MacLean L, Chisi JE, Odiit M, Gibson WC, Ferris V, Picozzi K, et al. Severity of human african trypanosomiasis in East Africa is associated with geographic location, parasite genotype, and host inflammatory cytokine response profile. Infect Immun 2004; 72:7040 - 4; http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/IAI.72.12.7040-7044.2004; PMID: 15557627
  • Morrison LJ, Tait A, McLellan S, Sweeney L, Turner CM, MacLeod A. A major genetic locus in Trypanosoma brucei is a determinant of host pathology. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2009; 3:e557; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0000557; PMID: 19956590
  • Clayton CE. Trypanosoma brucei: influence of host strain and parasite antigenic type on infections in mice. Exp Parasitol 1978; 44:202 - 8; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0014-4894(78)90099-1; PMID: 658218
  • Balmer O, Stearns SC, Schotzau A, Brun R. Intraspecific competition between co-infecting parasite strains enhances host survival in African trypanosomes. Ecology 2009; 90:3367 - 78; http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/08-2291.1; PMID: 20120806
  • Truc P, Jamonneau V, N'Guessan P, N'Dri L, Diallo PB, Cuny G. Trypanosoma brucei ssp. and T congolense: mixed human infection in Cote d'Ivoire. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1998; 92:537 - 8; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0035-9203(98)90904-X; PMID: 9861372
  • Kemp SJ, Iraqi F, Darvasi A, Soller M, Teale AJ. Localization of genes controlling resistance to trypanosomiasis in mice. Nat Genet 1997; 16:194 - 6; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ng0697-194; PMID: 9171834
  • Magez S, Radwanska M, Drennan M, Fick L, Baral TN, Allie N, et al. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor-1 (TNFp55) signal transduction and macrophage-derived soluble TNF are crucial for nitric oxide-mediated Trypanosoma congolense parasite killing. J Infect Dis 2007; 196:954 - 62; http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/520815; PMID: 17703428
  • Magez S, Lucas R, Darji A, Songa EB, Hamers R, De Baetselier P. Murine tumour necrosis factor plays a protective role during the initial phase of the experimental infection with Trypanosoma brucei brucei. Parasite Immunol 1993; 15:635 - 41; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3024.1993.tb00577.x; PMID: 7877840
  • Magez S, Geuskens M, Beschin A, del Favero H, Verschueren H, Lucas R, et al. Specific uptake of tumor necrosis factor-alpha is involved in growth control of Trypanosoma brucei. J Cell Biol 1997; 137:715 - 27; http://dx.doi.org/10.1083/jcb.137.3.715; PMID: 9151676
  • Tabel H, Kaushik RS, Uzonna JE. Susceptibility and resistance to Trypanosoma congolense infections. Microbes Infect 2000; 2:1619 - 29; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1286-4579(00)01318-6; PMID: 11113381
  • Mege JL, Meghari S, Honstettre A, Capo C, Raoult D. The two faces of interleukin 10 in human infectious diseases. Lancet Infect Dis 2006; 6:557 - 69; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(06)70577-1; PMID: 16931407
  • Bosschaerts T, Guilliams M, Noel W, Herin M, Burk RF, Hill KE, et al. Alternatively activated myeloid cells limit pathogenicity associated with African trypanosomiasis through the IL-10 inducible gene selenoprotein P. J Immunol 2008; 180:6168 - 75; PMID: 18424738
  • Maclean L, Odiit M, Macleod A, Morrison L, Sweeney L, Cooper A, et al. Spatially and genetically distinct African Trypanosome virulence variants defined by host interferon-gamma response. J Infect Dis 2007; 196:1620 - 8; http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/522011; PMID: 18008245
  • Sternberg JM, Maclean L. A spectrum of disease in human African trypanosomiasis: the host and parasite genetics of virulence. Parasitology 2010; 137:2007 - 15; http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0031182010000946; PMID: 20663245
  • MacLean LM, Odiit M, Chisi JE, Kennedy PG, Sternberg JM. Focus-specific clinical profiles in human African Trypanosomiasis caused by Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2010; 4:e906; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0000906; PMID: 21151878
  • Kuepfer I, Hhary EP, Allan M, Edielu A, Burri C, Blum JA. Clinical Presentation of T.b. rhodesiense Sleeping Sickness in Second Stage Patients from Tanzania and Uganda. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2011; 5:e968; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0000968; PMID: 21407802
  • Cornelissen AW, Bakkeren GA, Barry JD, Michels PA, Borst P. Characteristics of trypanosome variant antigen genes active in the tsetse fly. Nucleic Acids Res 1985; 13:4661 - 76; http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nar/13.13.4661; PMID: 4022771
  • Field MC, Carrington M. The trypanosome flagellar pocket. Nat Rev Microbiol 2009; 7:775 - 86; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro2221; PMID: 19806154
  • Mkunza F, Olaho WM, Powell CN. Partial protection against natural trypanosomiasis after vaccination with a flagellar pocket antigen from Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense. Vaccine 1995; 13:151 - 4; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0264-410X(95)93128-V; PMID: 7625108
  • Radwanska M, Magez S, Dumont N, Pays A, Nolan D, Pays E. Antibodies raised against the flagellar pocket fraction of Trypanosoma brucei preferentially recognize HSP60 in cDNA expression library. Parasite Immunol 2000; 22:639 - 50; http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3024.2000.00348.x; PMID: 11123756
  • Steverding D, Stierhof YD, Chaudhri M, Ligtenberg M, Schell D, Beck-Sickinger AG, et al. ESAG 6 and 7 products of Trypanosoma brucei form a transferrin binding protein complex. Eur J Cell Biol 1994; 64:78 - 87; PMID: 7957316
  • Jackson DG, Windle HJ, Voorheis HP. The identification, purification, and characterization of two invariant surface glycoproteins located beneath the surface coat barrier of bloodstream forms of Trypanosoma brucei. J Biol Chem 1993; 268:8085 - 95; PMID: 8463323
  • Ziegelbauer K, Overath P. Identification of invariant surface glycoproteins in the bloodstream stage of Trypanosoma brucei. J Biol Chem 1992; 267:10791 - 6; PMID: 1587855
  • Ziegelbauer K, Overath P. Organization of two invariant surface glycoproteins in the surface coat of Trypanosoma brucei. Infect Immun 1993; 61:4540 - 5; PMID: 8406850
  • Lança AS, de Sousa KP, Atouguia J, Prazeres DM, Monteiro GA, Silva MS. Trypanosoma brucei: immunisation with plasmid DNA encoding invariant surface glycoprotein gene is able to induce partial protection in experimental African trypanosomiasis. Exp Parasitol 2011; 127:18 - 24; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.exppara.2010.06.017; PMID: 20599996
  • García-Salcedo JA, Perez-Morga D, Gijon P, Dilbeck V, Pays E, Nolan DP. A differential role for actin during the life cycle of Trypanosoma brucei. EMBO J 2004; 23:780 - 9; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.emboj.7600094; PMID: 14963487
  • Li SQ, Yang WB, Ma LJ, Xi SM, Chen QL, Song XW, et al. Immunization with recombinant actin from Trypanosoma evansi induces protective immunity against T. evansi, T. equiperdum and T. b. brucei infection. Parasitol Res 2009; 104:429 - 35; http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00436-008-1216-9; PMID: 18923843
  • Li SQ, Fung MC, Reid SA, Inoue N, Lun ZR. Immunization with recombinant beta-tubulin from Trypanosoma evansi induced protection against T. evansi, T. equiperdum and T. b. brucei infection in mice. Parasite Immunol 2007; 29:191 - 9; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3024.2006.00933.x; PMID: 17371456
  • Lubega GW, Byarugaba DK, Prichard RK. Immunization with a tubulin-rich preparation from Trypanosoma brucei confers broad protection against African trypanosomosis. Exp Parasitol 2002; 102:9 - 22; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0014-4894(02)00140-6; PMID: 12615162
  • Schneider A, Sherwin T, Sasse R, Russell DG, Gull K, Seebeck T. Subpellicular and flagellar microtubules of Trypanosoma brucei brucei contain the same alpha-tubulin isoforms. J Cell Biol 1987; 104:431 - 8; http://dx.doi.org/10.1083/jcb.104.3.431; PMID: 3818788
  • Schenkman S, Jiang MS, Hart GW, Nussenzweig V. A novel cell surface trans-sialidase of Trypanosoma cruzi generates a stage-specific epitope required for invasion of mammalian cells. Cell 1991; 65:1117 - 25; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0092-8674(91)90008-M; PMID: 1712251
  • Silva MS, Prazeres DM, Lanca A, Atouguia J, Monteiro GA. Trans-sialidase from Trypanosoma brucei as a potential target for DNA vaccine development against African trypanosomiasis. Parasitol Res 2009; 105:1223 - 9; http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00436-009-1542-6; PMID: 19582478
  • Ramey K, Eko FO, Thompson WE, Armah H, Igietseme JU, Stiles JK. Immunolocalization and challenge studies using a recombinant Vibrio cholerae ghost expressing Trypanosoma brucei Ca(2+) ATPase (TBCA2) antigen. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2009; 81:407 - 15; PMID: 19706905
  • Sileghem M, Flynn JN, Logan-Henfrey L, Ellis J. Tumour necrosis factor production by monocytes from cattle infected with Trypanosoma (Duttonella) vivax and Trypanosoma (Nannomonas) congolense: possible association with severity of anaemia associated with the disease. Parasite Immunol 1994; 16:51 - 4; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3024.1994.tb00304.x; PMID: 7908735
  • Okomo-Assoumou MC, Daulouede S, Lemesre JL, N'Zila-Mouanda A, Vincendeau P. Correlation of high serum levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha with disease severity in human African trypanosomiasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1995; 53:539 - 43; PMID: 7485714
  • Magez S, Radwanska M, Beschin A, Sekikawa K, De Baetselier P. Tumor necrosis factor alpha is a key mediator in the regulation of experimental Trypanosoma brucei infections. Infect Immun 1999; 67:3128 - 32; PMID: 10338530
  • Rolin S, Hanocq-Quertier J, Paturiaux-Hanocq F, Nolan D, Salmon D, Webb H, et al. Simultaneous but independent activation of adenylate cyclase and glycosylphosphatidylinositol-phospholipase C under stress conditions in Trypanosoma brucei. J Biol Chem 1996; 271:10844 - 52; http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.271.18.10844; PMID: 8631899
  • Fox JA, Duszenko M, Ferguson MA, Low MG, Cross GA. Purification and characterization of a novel glycan-phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C from Trypanosoma brucei. J Biol Chem 1986; 261:15767 - 71; PMID: 3782089
  • Magez S, Stijlemans B, Radwanska M, Pays E, Ferguson MA, De Baetselier P. The glycosyl-inositol-phosphate and dimyristoylglycerol moieties of the glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor of the trypanosome variant-specific surface glycoprotein are distinct macrophage-activating factors. J Immunol 1998; 160:1949 - 56; PMID: 9469458
  • Philip R, Epstein LB. Tumour necrosis factor as immunomodulator and mediator of monocyte cytotoxicity induced by itself, gamma-interferon and interleukin-1. Nature 1986; 323:86 - 9; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/323086a0; PMID: 3092113
  • Pentreath VW. Endotoxins and their significance for murine trypanosomiasis. Parasitol Today 1994; 10:226 - 9; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0169-4758(94)90122-8; PMID: 15275456
  • Stijlemans B, Baral TN, Guilliams M, Brys L, Korf J, Drennan M, et al. A glycosylphosphatidylinositol-based treatment alleviates trypanosomiasis-associated immunopathology. J Immunol 2007; 179:4003 - 14; PMID: 17785839
  • Schofield L, Hewitt MC, Evans K, Siomos MA, Seeberger PH. Synthetic GPI as a candidate anti-toxic vaccine in a model of malaria. Nature 2002; 418:785 - 9; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature00937; PMID: 12181569
  • Boutlis CS, Gowda DC, Naik RS, Maguire GP, Mgone CS, Bockarie MJ, et al. Antibodies to Plasmodium falciparum glycosylphosphatidylinositols: inverse association with tolerance of parasitemia in Papua New Guinean children and adults. Infect Immun 2002; 70:5052 - 7; http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/IAI.70.9.5052-5057.2002; PMID: 12183552
  • Authié E, Duvallet G, Robertson C, Williams DJ. Antibody responses to a 33 kDa cysteine protease of Trypanosoma congolense: relationship to 'trypanotolerance' in cattle. Parasite Immunol 1993; 15:465 - 74; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3024.1993.tb00632.x; PMID: 8233561
  • Authie E, Boulange A, Muteti D, Lalmanach G, Gauthier F, Musoke AJ. Immunisation of cattle with cysteine proteinases of Trypanosoma congolense: targetting the disease rather than the parasite. Int J Parasitol 2001; 31:1429 - 33; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0020-7519(01)00266-1; PMID: 11595229
  • Boulangé A, Serveau C, Brillard M, Minet C, Gauthier F, Diallo A, et al. Functional expression of the catalytic domains of two cysteine proteinases from Trypanosoma congolense. Int J Parasitol 2001; 31:1435 - 40; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0020-7519(01)00267-3; PMID: 11595230
  • Pays E, Vanhamme L, Perez-Morga D. Antigenic variation in Trypanosoma brucei: facts, challenges and mysteries. Curr Opin Microbiol 2004; 7:369 - 74; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mib.2004.05.001; PMID: 15288623
  • Vanhamme L, Pays E, McCulloch R, Barry JD. An update on antigenic variation in African trypanosomes. Trends Parasitol 2001; 17:338 - 43; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1471-4922(01)01922-5; PMID: 11423377
  • Berriman M, Ghedin E, Hertz-Fowler C, Blandin G, Renauld H, Bartholomeu DC, et al. The genome of the African trypanosome Trypanosoma brucei. Science 2005; 309:416 - 22; http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1112642; PMID: 16020726
  • Goodwin LG. The pathology of African trypanosomiasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1970; 64:797 - 817; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0035-9203(70)90096-9; PMID: 5495630
  • Urquhart GM, Murray M, Murray PK, Jennings FW, Bate E. Immunosuppression in Trypanosoma brucei infections in rats and mice. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1973; 67:528 - 35; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0035-9203(73)90083-7; PMID: 4785461
  • Terry RJ, Freeman J, Hudson KM, Longstaffe JA. Immunoglobulin M production and immunosuppression in trypanosomiasis: a linking hypothesis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1973; 67:263; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0035-9203(73)90167-3; PMID: 4544655
  • Jennings FW, Murray PK, Murray M, Urquhart GM. Protein catabolism in trypanosomiasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1973; 67:277; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0035-9203(73)90191-0; PMID: 4784083
  • Murray PK, Jennings FW, Murray M, Urquhart GM. The nature of immunosuppression in Trypanosoma brucei infections in mice. II. The role of the T and B lymphocytes. Immunology 1974; 27:825 - 40; PMID: 4548043
  • Morrison WI, Murray M, Bovell DL. Response of the murine lymphoid system to a chronic infection with Trypanosoma congolense. I. The spleen. Lab Invest 1981; 45:547 - 57; PMID: 7033658
  • Radwanska M, Guirnalda P, De Trez C, Ryffel B, Black S, Magez S. Trypanosomiasis-induced B cell apoptosis results in loss of protective anti-parasite antibody responses and abolishment of vaccine-induced memory responses. PLoS Pathog 2008; 4:e1000078; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1000078; PMID: 18516300
  • Magez S, Schwegmann A, Atkinson R, Claes F, Drennan M, De Baetselier P, et al. The role of B-cells and IgM antibodies in parasitemia, anemia, and VSG switching in Trypanosoma brucei-infected mice. PLoS Pathog 2008; 4:e1000122; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1000122; PMID: 18688274
  • Antoine-Moussiaux N, Magez S, Desmecht D. Contributions of experimental mouse models to the understanding of African trypanosomiasis. Trends Parasitol 2008; 24:411 - 8; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2008.05.010; PMID: 18684669
  • Iraqi F, Sekikawa K, Rowlands J, Teale A. Susceptibility of tumour necrosis factor-alpha genetically deficient mice to Trypanosoma congolense infection. Parasite Immunol 2001; 23:445 - 51; http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3024.2001.00401.x; PMID: 11489168
  • Shi M, Wei G, Pan W, Tabel H. Experimental African trypanosomiasis: a subset of pathogenic, IFN-gamma-producing, MHC class II-restricted CD4+ T cells mediates early mortality in highly susceptible mice. J Immunol 2006; 176:1724 - 32; PMID: 16424202
  • Magez S, Radwanska M, Drennan M, Fick L, Baral TN, Brombacher F, et al. Interferon-gamma and nitric oxide in combination with antibodies are key protective host immune factors during trypanosoma congolense Tc13 Infections. J Infect Dis 2006; 193:1575 - 83; http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/503808; PMID: 16652287
  • Namangala B, Noel W, De Baetselier P, Brys L, Beschin A. Relative contribution of interferon-gamma and interleukin-10 to resistance to murine African trypanosomosis. J Infect Dis 2001; 183:1794 - 800; http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/320731; PMID: 11372033
  • Dubois ME, Demick KP, Mansfield JM. Trypanosomes expressing a mosaic variant surface glycoprotein coat escape early detection by the immune system. Infect Immun 2005; 73:2690 - 7; http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/IAI.73.5.2690-2697.2005; PMID: 15845470
  • Magez S, Stijlemans B, Baral T, De Baetselier P. VSG-GPI anchors of African trypanosomes: their role in macrophage activation and induction of infection-associated immunopathology. Microbes Infect 2002; 4:999 - 1006; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1286-4579(02)01617-9; PMID: 12106794
  • McEvoy SM, Maeda N. Complex events in the evolution of the haptoglobin gene cluster in primates. J Biol Chem 1988; 263:15740 - 7; PMID: 3170608
  • Gichuki C, Brun R. Animal models of CNS (second stage) sleeping sickness. In: Handbook of Animal Models of Infection (eds O Zak & M Sande) Academic Press, New York, 1999:pp. 795– 800.
  • Ouwe-Missi-Oukem-Boyer O, Mezui-Me-Ndong J, Boda C, Lamine I, Labrousse F, Bisser S, et al. The vervet monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops) as an experimental model for Trypanosoma brucei gambiense human African trypanosomiasis: a clinical, biological and pathological study. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2006; 100:427 - 36; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trstmh.2005.07.023; PMID: 16325877
  • Schmidt H, Sayer P. Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense infection in vervet monkeys. II. Provocation of the encephalitic late phase by treatment of infected monkeys. Tropenmed Parasitol 1982; 33:255 - 9; PMID: 7164167
  • Thuita JK, Kagira JM, Mwangangi D, Matovu E, Turner CM, Masiga D. Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense transmitted by a single tsetse fly bite in vervet monkeys as a model of human African trypanosomiasis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2008; 2:e238; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0000238; PMID: 18846231
  • Jenkins G, Facer CA. Haematology of African trypanosomiasis. In: Tizard I, ed Immunology and Pathogenesis Boca Raton: CRC press 1985:pp 13–4.