Rediscovering the therapeutic potential of Amaranthus species: A review

Figures & data

Fig. 1 Diagrammatic representation of pharmacological properties of Amaranthus spp. due to its major active components based on in vitro and in vivo studies.

Table 1 Biochemical studies validating antioxidant property of Amaranthus spp.

Latin name of plant	Plant part used	Extract type/active component	Antioxidant activity	Refs.
A. spinosus	Leaves	Chloroform, n-hexane, ethyl- acetate	DPPH	[33]
	Leaves	Methanolic	Alpha-amylase inhibition assay by CNPG3	[68]
A. caudatus	Whole plant	Methanolic	Alpha–amylase, ABTS, DPPH, SOD,OH^−, NO	[37]
A. hybridus A. cruentus	Aerial parts	Hydroacetonic, methanolic, aqueous	Xanthine oxidase inhibitory	[9]
A. cruentus	Seeds	3 novel purified peptides	HMG-CoA reductase assay in terms of NADPH	[79]
A. tricolor	Leaves	Dry leaf powder	Ascorbic acid	[12]
A. tricolor A. viridis	Stem	Methanol, ethanol, hexane	DPPH, TPC	[38]
A. tricolor A. lividus	Leaves	Petroleum ether, dichloromethane & methanol	DPPH, ABTS, ALPO	[35]
A. viridis	Leaves & seeds	Pure & aqueous methanolic	DPPH, TPC, TFC	[32]
A. viridis	Leaves	Methanolic	SOD, GST, Catalase, Ascorbic acid, Lipid-peroxidation	[36]
A. gangeticus	Leaves	Aqueous	DPPH and superoxide radical by Hematoxilin	[34]
Amaranth (A. cruentus)	Leaves, seeds, stem & flowers	Sequentially extracted by acetone & then methanol/water	ABTS, DPPH, ORAC, TPC	[16]

Table 2 Pharmacological activity of Amaranthus spp. corroborated by in vivo studies.

Latin name of plant	Plant part used	Extract type/active component	Model	Pharmacological activity	Dosage/toxicity	Refs.
A. spinosus	Whole plant	Methanolic	Mouse	Anti-nociceptive, anti-inflammatory	500 mg/kg	[44]
	Whole plant	50% ethanolic	Rats	Hepatoprotective	400 mg/kg	[59]
	Whole plant	Methanolic	Wistar rats	Hepatoprotective	200 & 400 mg/kg, 14 d	[60]^*
	Whole plant	Petroleum-ether, chloroform, methanolic,aqueous	Rats	Anti-diabetic	200 & 400 mg/kg	[67]^*
	Whole plant except roots	Methanolic	Sprague Dawley rats	Hepatoprotective	250 mg/kg	[55]
	Whole plant	Aqueous, methanolic	Mice	Laxative,	100 & 300 mg/kg	[89]
				bronchodilator,	1,3,10,30 mg/kg BW
				spasmolytic	0.01–10 mg/ml
	Whole plant	Methanolic	Male Swiss Wistar rats	Anti-depressant	100 & 200 mg/kg	[91]^*
	Plant material	70% ethanolic	Mouse	Anti-malarial	10 mgmg/kg BW for 7 d	[81]
	Leaves	Methanolic	Rats	Anti-pyretic	400 mg/kg	[11]^*
	Leaves	Chloroform, n-hexane, ethyl-acetate – hexane most effective	Eggs of brine shrimp	Cytotoxic	LC 50–29.15 µg/ml (for hexane)	[33]
	Leaves	Methanolic	Rats	Anti-diabetic, anti-cholestrolemic	400 mg/kg for 21 d	[66]
	Leaves	Ethyl -acetate	Mouse	Anti-anaphylactic	–	[39]
	Leaves	Powder	Wistar-albino rats	Gastroprotective	1 g/kg & 2 g/kg	[65]
	Leaves	Ethanolic	Rats	Anti-diabetic	450 mg/kg	[71]
	Leaves	50% ethanolic	Albino mice	Anti-diabetic	250 & 500 mg/kg for 21 d	[72]
	Leaves	Extract	Adult rats	Anti-hypercholestro-lemic	250 mg/kg for 28 d	[78]
	–	Hydro-ethanolic	Rat urinary bladder & rabbit jejunum	Ishchuria	Not lethal at 240 mg/kg	[90]
	Leaves	Ethanol	Swiss albino mice	Anti-cancer	100 & 200 mg/kg BW for 16 d	[48]^*
A. caudatus	Whole plant	Methanolic	Mice & rats	anti- nociceptive,anti-pyretic	200 & 400 mg/kg	[45]
	Whole plant	Methanolic	Rats	Anti-pyretic	400 mg/kg	[11]^*
	Aerial parts	96% ethanol & hydro-alcoholic extract	Male New Zealand rabbits	Anti- atherosclerotic	150 mg/kg daily for 2 mo	[76,77]
	Leaves	Aqueous	Albino Wistar rats	Anti-carcinogenic	1 ml of 0.2 g/ml for 14 d	[50]
	Leaves	Methanolic	Rats	anti-diabetic, hypocholestro-lemic	400 mg/kg for 21 d	[66]
A. hypochondriacus	Seeds	Whole	Rats	Hepatoprotective	–	[57]
A. cruentus	Seeds	Flour & protein concentrate	Wistar rats	Hepatoprotective	–	[56]
A. viridis	Whole plant	Methanolic	Mouse	Anti-nociceptive, anti-pyretic	200 mg/kg	[42]^*
	Whole plant	Methanolic	Rats	Anti-pyretic	400 mg/kg	[11]^*
	Whole plant	Methanolic	Albino Wistar rats	Anti-diabetic	200 and 400 mg/kg for 15 d	[69]
	Whole plant	Whole plant	Male Wistar rats	Cardioprotective	300 mg/kg BW for 45 d	[74,75]
	Leaves	Methanolic	Rats	Anti-diabetic, hypercholestro-lemic	400 mg/kg for 21 d	[66]
	Stem	Aqueous	Rats	Anti-diabetic, anti-hyperlipidemic.	100, 200, 400 mg/kg for 30 d	[70]
A. paniculatus	Leaves	Aqueous: ethanolic 4:1	Mice	Anti-cancer	100 and 200 mg/ml	[49]
A. tricolor	Whole plant	Methanolic	Mice	Anti-nociceptive,anti-diabetic	400 mg/kg BW	[41]
	Leaves	Ethanolic	Rats	Hepatoprotective	3 w	[58]
	Leaves	Aqueous	Rats	Anti-diabetic hypo-cholestrolemic	400 mg/kg for 21 d	[12]^*
	Leaves	Ethanolic, ethyl-acetate	Rats	Gastroprotective	200 mg/kg	[62,63] ^*
	Leaves	Hydro-alcoholic	Rats	Anti-inflammatory, anti- nociceptive	–	[40]
	Roots	Aqueous	Albino Wistar rats	Hepatoprotective	400 mg/kg	[61]^*
A. hybridus	Leaves	Aqueous	Albino Wistar rats	Anti-carcinogenic	1 ml of 0.2 g/ml for 14 d	[50]
	Mature plant with ripen seed	Methanolic	EAC cellstreated mice	Anti-cancerous	25, 50 & 100 μg/ml/d for 6 d	[53]
	Roots	Aqueous, ethanolic	Mouse	Anti-nociceptive, anti-inflammatory	200 mg/kg	[43]
A. lividus	Young plant	Methanolic	–	Anti-cancerous	25, 50 & 100 μg/ml/d for 6 d	[53]
A. roxburghianus	Roots	Hydro-alcoholic	Rats	Treatment for ulcerative colitis	50 and 100 mg/kg	[64]

* All the studies mention: no acute toxicity at 2000 mg/kg BW

Table 3 In vitro model based Pharmacological activity of Amaranthus spp.

Latin name of the plant	Plant part used	Extract type/active component	Model	Pharmacological activity	Refs.
A. spinosus	Leaves	Hexane, ethyl -acetate, dichloromethane, methanolic	S. typhi	Anti-bacterial	[87]
	Leaves	Chloroform n-hexane, ethyl- acetate	4 Gram +ve & 6 gram −ve strains	Anti-microbial	[33]
	Leaves	Ethyl–acetate	Rat peritoneal mast cells	Anti-anaphylactic	[39]
	Stem & flower	Distilled water, hexane, methanol	5 bacterial & 3 fungal strains	Anti-bacterial & antifungal	[88]
	Root	Ethanolic, aqueous	Against 10 pathogenic strains	Anti-bacterial	[85]
A. caudatus	Leaves	Hexane, ethyl acetate, dichloromethane, methanolic	S. typhi	Anti-bacterial	[87]
A. gangeticus	Leaves	Boiled–aqueous	Calf thymus genomic DNA, goat liver homogenate	Degenerative diseases	[34]
A. cruentus	Leaves & stem	Aqueous	Periheral blood lymphocytes	Anti-cancer	[46]
	Seeds	Deffated flour and protein	Bile acid binding activity	Hypocholestro-lemic	[73]
A. viridis	Leaves	Chloroform, hexane, aqueous	9 bacterial, & 2 fungal strains	Anti-bacterial	[83]
	Leaves & seed extracts	Pure aqueous, methanolic	S. aureus, E. coli, R. oligosporus, F. solani	Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal	[31]
	Dried leaves & seed extracts	Methanolic	S. aureus, E. coli, R. oligosporus, F. solani	Anti-bacterial, antifungal	[86]
	Leaves and stem	50% ethanolic extract	3 human leukemic cell lines (Jurkat, CEM and HL60)	Antiproliferative	[54]
A. hypochondriacus	Seeds	Unprocessed & extruded Amaranth hydrolysates	Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced THP human macrophage cell line	Anti-atherosclerotic	[80]
A. tricolor	Leaves	Betalamic acid (250 µg/mL)	Porcine pancreatic α-amylase activity	Anti-diabetic	[18]
	Leaves	Petroleum ether, dichloromethane & methanol	SH-SY 5Y cells	Neuroprotective against AGEs-induced oxidative stress	[35]
A. hybridus	Leaves	Hexane, ethyl -acetate, dichloromethane, methanolic	S. typhi	Anti-bacterial	[87]
	Roots	Petroleum-ether, ethyl- acetate, ethanol, water	B. subtilis, S. aureus, E. coli	Anti-bacterial	[84]
A. tristis Roxb.	–	Hexane, ethyl-acetate, methanolic extracts	Human colon adenocarcinoma cell line- COLO 320 DM	Anti-cancer	[47]
A. mante-gazzianus	Seeds	Protein isolate	UMR106 cell- line	Anti-tumor	[51]
A. lividus	Leaves	Petroleum ether, dichloromethane & methanol	SH-SY 5Y cells	Neuroprotective gainst AGEs-induced oxidative stress	[35]
Amaranth (A. cruentus)	Seeds	Isolated peptide	NIH-3T3 cell line	Anti-cancer	[52]

Table 4 Summary of clinical studies of Amaranthus spp.

Latin name of the plant	Plant part used	Extract type/active component	Pharmacological activity	Dosage/toxicity	Refs.
A. caudatus	Seeds	Defatted Amaranth snack	Hypocholestrolemic	50 g for 60 d	[92]
A. tricolor	Leaves	Powder	Prevention of complications post-menopause	9 g for 3 mo	[93]
Amaranthus	Leaves	Formulation	Anaemia	–	[94]
Amaranth extract	–	Extract	Increase in NO3^− and NO2^− levels (improves cardiovascular integrity)	2 g as single dose	[95]

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