Cultural Frames of Deviance. Muslim Religiousness and Adolescents’ Attitudes Toward Violent Control of Female Behavior

Figures & data

Figure 1. Accordance with violent control of daughters, in percent, N= 32113.

Item: “Your 13-year-old daughter hasn’t returned home at the agreed time at 8:00 p.m., but after midnight. What would you do?” “I would slap her in the face”.

Table 1. Dependent variables: violent control of female behavior and VLNM.

Honor and external violence (range 1–4), alpha = 0.73
VLNM: A man should be prepared to defend his wife and children by force.
VLNM: A man who is not prepared to defend himself against insults with violence is a weakling.
VLNM: Men should be allowed to own firearms to protect their family or property.
VLNM: A real man is prepared to strike when someone speaks ill of his family.
VLNM: A real man is strong and protects his family.
Honor and internal dominance (range 1–4), alpha = 0.61
VLNM: A man as a family man must obey his wife and children.
VLNM: If a wife cheats on her husband, the husband may beat her.
VLNM: The man is the head of the family and may, if necessary, use force.
Accordance with violent control of daughters
When daughter comes home late at midnight: “I would slap my daughter in the face,” N = 32,113, N; %; Cum.%
1. Strongly disagree	N = 27,499;	85.63;	85.63
2. Rather disagree	N = 2,405;	7.49;	93.12
3 Rather disagree	N = 1,361;	4.24;	97.36
4. Strongly agree	N = 848;	2.64;	100

Figure 2. Random intercepts of context levels, empty model Table 2, all.

Table 2. Three-level ordered logistic regression of “accordance with violent control of daughters”.

	Violent contr. daughter: all		Violent contr. daughter: boys		Violent contr. daughter: girls
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)
Ref.: other, not relig. & no relig.	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.
Muslim, religious	0.477***	0.493***	0.699***	0.703***	0.210	0.231
Muslim, not religious	0.184	0.182	0.163	0.163	0.209	0.207
Other religion, religious	0.189***	0.189***	0.145*	0.145*	0.251***	0.251***
cognitive skills
Was in German child care	−0.148*	−0.149*	−0.234*	−0.234*	−0.027	−0.028
Age	0.008	0.008	−0.004	−0.004	0.046	0.045
High school level	−0.184***	−0.183***	−0.117^+	−0.117^+	−0.265**	−0.265**
Mean school level	0.024	0.024	−0.015	−0.015	0.080	0.080
Integrated school level	−0.054	−0.054	−0.012	−0.012	−0.119	−0.119
Grade German	0.013	0.013	0.049	0.050	−0.034	−0.034
Grade Maths	−0.011	−0.011	−0.003	−0.003	−0.020	−0.020
personality & attitudes
(low) self control	0.006	0.006	−0.013	−0.013	0.034	0.034
VLNM: Honor & external viol.	0.308***	0.308***	0.251***	0.251***	0.416***	0.415***
VLNM: Honor & internal domin.	0.492***	0.492***	0.497***	0.497***	0.500***	0.500***
Trust in the police	−0.076***	−0.076***	−0.036	−0.036	−0.140***	−0.140***
living conditions
Violence father against mother	0.235**	0.234**	0.396**	0.396**	0.094	0.094
Violence parents, childhood	0.866***	0.866***	0.824***	0.824***	0.948***	0.948***
Violence parents, last 12 months	0.393***	0.393***	0.396***	0.396***	0.370***	0.370***
Mother: high school degree	0.015	0.015	−0.005	−0.005	0.050	0.050
Own room at home	−0.020	−0.020	−0.004	−0.004	−0.069	−0.069
Unemployment/social assistance	0.116^+	0.116^+	0.183*	0.183*	0.042	0.042
Visited a museum last 12 month	0.074^+	0.074^+	0.091^+	0.091^+	0.046	0.047
No. of books at home/10	−0.000	−0.000	−0.002	−0.002	0.002	0.002
immigrant origin (ref.: native)
Turkish	0.405***	0.404***	0.363*	0.363*	0.415**	0.414**
former Soviet Union	0.244***	0.243***	0.100	0.099	0.350***	0.350***
former Yugoslavia	0.469***	0.467***	0.318^+	0.318^+	0.601***	0.599***
Polish	0.034	0.033	−0.083	−0.083	0.139	0.138
other	0.275***	0.274***	0.256**	0.256**	0.280**	0.279**
context effects
East Germany	0.399***	0.401***	0.218^+	0.218^+	0.632***	0.634***
% religious Muslims	0.011***	0.011***	0.008**	0.009**	0.014***	0.014***
% non-religious Muslims	0.011	0.011	−0.004	−0.004	0.038*	0.038*
% religious other	0.003*	0.003*	0.003	0.003	0.004^+	0.004^+
Muslims, rel.X%rel. Musl.	–	−0.001	–	−0.000	–	−0.001
cut1	3.659***	3.655***	3.526***	3.525***	4.191***	4.184***
cut2	4.614***	4.610***	4.424***	4.423***	5.248***	5.241***
cut3	5.759***	5.755***	5.446***	5.445***	6.668***	6.661***
L. 3: var(Cons.), 55 areas	0.020*	0.020*	0.019*	0.019*	0.021	0.021
L. 2: var(Musl., rel.)	0.169	0.164	0.457^+	0.455	0.249	0.236
L. 2: var(Cons.), 2012 classes	0.068**	0.068**	0.042	0.042	0.167***	0.167***
L. 2: cov(Cons, Musl., rel.)	0.022	0.021	0.011	0.011	0.000	0.001
Observations	32113	32113	16017	16017	16096	16096

⁺p < .1, *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.

Figure 3. Average marginal effects (95% confidence interval), selected individual level factors, model 2 in Table 2.

Figure 4. Average marginal effects (95% confidence interval), selected class-room level factors, model 2 in Table 2.

Table 3. Three-level linear regressions of adolescents’ accordance with “VLNM: honor and external violence”.

	Honor and external violence: all		Honor and external violence: boys		Honor and external violence: girls
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)
ref.: other, not relig. & no relig.	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.
Muslim, religious	0.039	0.095*	0.042	0.126*	0.051	0.088
Muslim, not religious	0.119	0.115	0.086	0.081	0.157	0.154
other religion, religious	0.011	0.010	−0.004	−0.005	0.016	0.015
cognitive skills
was in German child care	−0.013	−0.014	0.010	0.006	−0.033	−0.033
age	0.048***	0.047***	0.030*	0.029*	0.027*	0.027*
high school level	−0.216***	−0.215***	−0.203***	−0.200***	−0.182***	−0.182***
mean school level	−0.144***	−0.144***	−0.084***	−0.084***	−0.169***	−0.169***
integrated school level	−0.127***	−0.127***	−0.104***	−0.106***	−0.096***	−0.097***
grade German	−0.085***	−0.085***	−0.025*	−0.025*	−0.038***	−0.038***
grade Maths	−0.018***	−0.018***	−0.057***	−0.057***	−0.033***	−0.033***
personality & attitudes
(low) self control	0.274***	0.274***	0.265***	0.265***	0.209***	0.209***
trust in the police	−0.101***	−0.101***	−0.114***	−0.114***	−0.069***	−0.069***
living conditions
violence father against mother	0.071*	0.072*	0.124*	0.124*	0.087*	0.087*
violence parents, childhood	0.018	0.018	0.033*	0.033*	0.003	0.003
violence parents, last 12 month	0.007	0.007	0.015	0.015	0.062**	0.062**
mother: high school degree	0.015	0.015	−0.008	−0.008	0.001	0.001
own room at home	0.031	0.030	0.023	0.021	0.019	0.018
unemployment or social assistance	−0.040*	−0.040^+	−0.009	−0.006	−0.009	−0.009
visited a museum last 12 month	−0.072***	−0.072***	−0.115***	−0.114***	−0.056***	−0.056***
no. of books at home/10	−0.003***	−0.003***	−0.002***	−0.002***	−0.003***	−0.003***
immigrant origin (ref.: native)
Turkish	0.077*	0.076*	0.064	0.060	0.102*	0.101*
former Soviet Union	0.263***	0.261***	0.276***	0.272***	0.319***	0.318***
former Yugoslavia	0.151***	0.148***	0.163*	0.160*	0.182**	0.180**
Polish	0.095**	0.093**	0.154***	0.150***	0.087*	0.086*
other	0.112***	0.110***	0.126***	0.123***	0.127***	0.126***
context effects
East Germany	0.091**	0.093**	0.134***	0.138***	0.044	0.046
% religious Muslims	0.001*	0.002**	0.002*	0.003**	0.001	0.002^+
% non-religious Muslims	0.005	0.005	0.007	0.007	0.002	0.003
% religious other	−0.001*	−0.001*	−0.000	−0.000	−0.001^+	−0.001^+
Muslims, rel.X%rel. Musl.	–	−0.004**	–	−0.006**	–	−0.003
Constant	−0.203	−0.196	0.105	0.117	−0.180	−0.175
L. 3: Var(Cons.), 55 areas	.0024***	.0024**	.0012	0.0012	.0040**	.0039**
L. 2: Var(Cons.), 2012 clas.	.0240***	.0239***	.0305***	.0304***	.0260***	.0259***
L. 2: Var(Musl., rel.	.0548*	.0499*	.0549	0474	.1558**	.1526**
L. 2: Cov(Const, Musl., rel.)	−.003	−.0032	−.0281^+	−.0283*	−.0128	−.0124
Var(e)	.7736***	.7737***	.8416***	.8417***	.6434***	.6435***
Observations	32113	32113	16017	16017	16096	16096

+ p < .1, *p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001.

Table 4. Three-level linear regressions of adolescents’ accordance with “VLNM: honor and internal dominance”.

	Honor and internal dominance: all		Honor and internal dominance: boys		Honor and internal dominance: girls
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)
ref.: other, not relig. & no relig.	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.
Muslim, religious (ref.: other religion, not religious/no religion)	0.237***	0.203***	0.281***	0.241***	0.216***	0.185***
Muslim, not religious	0.010	0.011	0.082^+	0.084^+	−0.040	−0.039
other religion, religious	0.056***	0.056***	0.065***	0.065***	0.042***	0.042***
cognitive skills
was in German child care	−0.058***	−0.058***	−0.077***	−0.076***	−0.033**	−0.033**
age	0.006^+	0.006^+	−0.004	−0.003	−0.003	−0.003
high school level	−0.040***	−0.040***	−0.031***	−0.032***	−0.034***	−0.034***
mean school level	−0.023***	−0.023***	−0.015^+	−0.015^+	−0.018**	−0.018**
integrated school level	−0.014^+	−0.013^+	−0.002	−0.001	−0.007	−0.007
grade German	−0.035***	−0.035***	−0.011**	−0.011**	−0.019***	−0.019***
grade Maths	0.014***	0.014***	0.002	0.002	0.005*	0.005*
personality & attitudes
(low) self control	0.038***	0.038***	0.047***	0.047***	−0.003	−0.003
trust in the police	−0.018***	−0.018***	−0.029***	−0.029***	0.005^+	0.005^+
living conditions
violence father against mother	0.017	0.017	0.074***	0.073***	0.003	0.003
violence parents, childhood	0.029***	0.029***	0.047***	0.047***	0.011*	0.011*
violence parents, last 12 month	0.023***	0.023***	0.045***	0.045***	0.028***	0.028***
mother: high school degree	0.013**	0.013**	0.007	0.007	0.004	0.004
own room at home	−0.028***	−0.028***	−0.034**	−0.034**	−0.029***	−0.029***
unemployment or social assistance	−0.014^+	−0.015^+	−0.002	−0.003	0.003	0.003
visited a museum last 12 month	0.001	0.001	−0.005	−0.005	−0.003	−0.003
no. of books at home/10	−0.001***	−0.001***	−0.001***	−0.001***	−0.000**	−0.000**
immigrant origin (ref.: native)
Turkish	0.124***	0.125***	0.141***	0.142***	0.090***	0.090***
former Soviet Union	0.022*	0.023*	0.058***	0.059***	0.018^+	0.019^+
former Yugoslavia	0.061***	0.062***	0.087**	0.088**	0.053**	0.053**
Polish	0.006	0.006	0.033^+	0.034*	−0.002	−0.001
other	0.004	0.005	0.020^+	0.021*	0.003	0.003
context effects
East Germany	−0.004	−0.005	−0.019	−0.020	0.012	0.012
% religious Muslims	0.001*	0.000	0.001	0.000	0.001^+	0.000
% non-religious Muslims	−0.001	−0.001	−0.003	−0.003	−0.000	−0.000
% religious other	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
Muslims, rel.X%rel. Musl.	–	0.003***	–	0.003**	–	0.002*
Constant	0.758***	0.755***	0.907***	0.903***	0.773***	0.771***
L. 3: Var(Cons), 55 areas	.0002**	.0002**	.0004**	.0004*	.0002*	.0002*
L. 2: Var(Cons), 2012 clas.	.0015***	.0015***	.0030***	.0029***	.0008**	.0008**
L. 2: Var(Musl., rel.)	.0499**	.0486**	.0525**	.0514**	.0721***	.0711**
L. 2: Cov(Co., Musl.,rel.)	−.0011	−.0012	−.0046*	−.0048*	.0011	.0011
Var(e)	.1092***	.1092***	.1327***	.1327***	.0731***	.0731***
Observations	32113	32113	16017	16017	16096	16096

⁺p < .1, *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.

Table A1. Descriptive statistics after model 1, Table 2.

N=31113	mean	sd	min	max
slap daughter in face	1.24	0.65	1	4
Muslim, religious	0.06	0.23	0	1
Muslim, not religious	0	0.07	0	1
other religion, religious	0.26	0.44	0	1
was in German child care	0.94	0.23	0	1
age	15.23	0.67	13	20
high school level	0.34	0.47	0	1
mean school level	0.25	0.43	0	1
integrated school level	0.13	0.34	0	1
grade German	4.01	0.84	1	6
grade Maths	3.89	1.05	1	6
(low) self-control*	−0.01	0.99	−1.39	2.38
VLNM: Honor & external viol.	−0.04	0.99	−2.99	2.94
VLNM: Honor & internal domin. +	2.16	0.95	1	7.88
trust in the police*	0.03	0.98	−2.49	1.78
violence father against mother	0.03	0.17	0	1
violence parents, childhood	0.4	0.49	0	1
violence parents, last 12 month	0.15	0.36	0	1
mother: high school degree	0.28	0.45	0	1
own room at home	0.91	0.28	0	1
unemployment or social assistance	0.07	0.25	0	1
visited a museum last 12 month	0.41	0.49	0	1
no. of books at home/10	20.01	19.56	0	60
turkish	0.05	0.21	0	1
former Soviet Union	0.06	0.23	0	1
former Yugoslavia	0.01	0.12	0	1
polish	0.03	0.17	0	1
other	0.1	0.3	0	1
East Germany	0.06	0.24	0	1
% religious Muslims *	0	10.14	−5.9	79.82
% non-religious Muslims *	0	1.7	−0.49	32.84
% religious other *	0	13.21	−25.53	60.19

*mean centered, + re-scaled to positive range for allowing logarithm.

Table A2. Three-level linear regressions of adolescents’ religiousness.

	all		boys		girls
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)
	Religiousn.	Religiousn.	Religiousn.	Religiousn.	Religiousn.	Religiousn.
Muslim	0.346***	0.292***	0.413***	0.341***	0.266***	0.226***
cognitive skills
was in German child care	−0.029**	−0.028**	−0.004	−0.000	−0.052***	−0.052***
age	−0.035***	−0.035***	−0.036***	−0.035***	−0.030***	−0.030***
high school level	0.086***	0.084***	0.067***	0.063***	0.094***	0.093***
mean school level	0.059***	0.059***	0.048***	0.047***	0.063***	0.063***
integrated school level	0.011	0.011	−0.005	−0.004	0.014	0.015
grade German	0.035***	0.035***	0.032***	0.032***	0.023***	0.022***
grade Maths	0.016***	0.015***	0.016***	0.016***	0.022***	0.022***
personality & attitudes
(low) self-control	−0.035***	−0.035***	−0.028***	−0.028***	−0.034***	−0.034***
VLNM: Honor & external viol.	−0.007**	−0.007**	−0.009*	−0.009*	0.010**	0.010**
VLNM: Honor & internal domin.	0.037***	0.036***	0.033***	0.032***	0.065***	0.064***
trust in the police	0.063***	0.063***	0.058***	0.057***	0.070***	0.070***
living conditions
violence father against mother	0.002	0.001	−0.014	−0.014	0.005	0.005
violence parents, childhood	0.004	0.004	0.011	0.011	−0.001	−0.001
violence parents, last 12 month	0.027***	0.027***	0.039***	0.039***	0.010	0.010
mother: high school degree	−0.010^+	−0.010^+	−0.014^+	−0.014^+	0.002	0.002
own room at home	−0.080***	−0.078***	−0.073***	−0.070***	−0.082***	−0.081***
unemployment/social assist.	−0.006	−0.007	−0.029*	−0.031*	0.004	0.004
visited a museum last 12 month	0.079***	0.079***	0.091***	0.092***	0.073***	0.073***
no. of books at home/10	0.001***	0.001***	0.001***	0.001***	0.001***	0.001***
immigrant origin (ref.: native)
turkish	0.208***	0.207***	0.214***	0.213***	0.188***	0.187***
former Soviet Union	0.128***	0.130***	0.123***	0.127***	0.109***	0.110***
former Yugoslavia	0.133***	0.136***	0.119***	0.123***	0.125***	0.128***
polish	0.235***	0.238***	0.262***	0.265***	0.205***	0.207***
other	0.091***	0.094***	0.107***	0.110***	0.068***	0.070***
context effects
East Germany	−0.366***	−0.370***	−0.343***	−0.347***	−0.388***	−0.391***
% Muslims	0.002***	0.001*	0.002***	0.000	0.002***	0.001*
% Muslims X Muslims	–	0.004***	–	0.006***	–	0.003***
Constant	0.922***	0.914***	0.892***	0.880***	0.878***	0.874***
L. 3: Var(Cons.), 55 areas	.0061***	.0060***	.0064***	.0063***	.0059***	.0058***
L. 2: Var(Cons.), 2012 clas.	.0077***	.0075***	.0074***	.0072***	.0098***	.0097***
L. 2: Var(musl., rel.)	.0000	.0000	.0000	.0000	.0000	.0000
L. 1: Var(e)	.1455***	.1453***	.1544***	.1542***	.1322***	.1322***
Observations	31201	31201	15457	15457	15744	15744

+p < .1, *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.

Table A3. Correlation of main variables, all p ≤ 0.01.

	slap daughter in face	Muslim, religious	Muslim, not religious	other religion, religious	girl	% religious muslims	% non-religious muslims	% religious other
slap daughter in face	1.00
Muslim, religious	0.21	1.00
Muslim, not religious	0.03	−0.02	1.00
other religion, religious	0.00	−0.15	−0.04	1.00
girl	−0.08	0.00	0.00	0.04	1.00
% religious muslims	0.17	0.43	0.04	−0.03	−0.02	1.00
% non-religious muslims	0.04	0.07	0.26	−0.02	−0.01	0.17	1.00
% religious other	−0.01	−0.06	−0.02	0.30	0.06	−0.15	−0.08	1.00