Preschool Classroom Age Composition and Physical Literacy Environment: Influence on Children’s Emergent Literacy Outcomes

Figures & data

Figure 1. Conceptual framework of the current study.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of focal variables and covariates for the sample (n = 895).

	Mean(SD)/Percent	Min	Max
Age composition (%)
2- or 3-year-olds	22.53(24.23)	0	100
4-year-olds	63.06(23.00)	0	100
5-year-olds	14.41(16.15)	0	100
Fall Language
Receptive language (PPVT)	85.05(19.21)	32	130
Expressive language (WJ)	94.07(19.20)	24	129
Phonological awareness (TOPEL)	90.00(13.88)	54	131
Print knowledge (TOPEL)	95.41(15.11)	73	145
Spring Language
Receptive language (PPVT)	89.19(17.05)	37	131
Expressive language (WJ)	95.55(15.14)	22	132
Phonological awareness (TOPEL)	92.72(15.16)	55	131
Print knowledge (TOPEL)	102.18(14.98)	66	145
Classroom Physical literacy environment
ELLCO: Book Area	2.48(0.75)	0	3
ELLCO: Book Selection	6.54(1.25)	3	8
ELLCO: Book Use	4.58(2.61)	0	9
ELLCO: Writing Materials	6.14(1.38)	1	8
ELLCO: Writing Around Room	6.10(2.38)	0	13
Child and family characteristics
Child age	4.11(0.50)	2.26	5.38
Child gender: female	49.50	-	-
Child race/ethnicity		-	-
Black/African American	42.20	-	-
White/Caucasian	13.53	-	-
Hispanic/Latine	35.21	-	-
Other	9.06	-	-
Household size	4.40(1.64)	2.00	13.00
Number of children under 18	2.40(1.29)	1.00	12.00
Household income/1,000	23.95(22.44)	2.50	87.50
Mothers’ education	12.70(2.35)	8.00	20.00
Fathers’ lives at home	49.61	-	-
Child primary language is English	84.42	-	-
Teacher characteristics
Teacher’s gender: female	96.26	-	-
Age	42.56(10.55)	22.00	69.00
Teacher race/ethnicity
Black/African American	47.20	-	-
White/Caucasian	32.71	-	-
Hispanic/Latine	11.68	-	-
Other	8.41	-	-
Years of education	15.81(1.62)	12.00	20.00
Highest degree of education (%)
Less than associate’s degree	7.51	-	-
Associate’s degree	28.17	-	-
Bachelor’s degree	45.07	-	-
Master’s degree or higher	19.25	-	-
Years at current program	8.42(6.39)	1.00	35.00
Years at current position	7.44(5.82)	1.00	33.00
In year 1 intervention	41.89	-	-
Participated in year 1 control	40.54	-	-
Added in year 2, not in year 1	17.57	-	-
In year 2 intervention	50.45	-	-
Participated in year 2 control	49.55	-	-
Classroom characteristics
Class size	17.31(2.85)	7.00	32.00
Average income-to-needs	1.07(0.77)	0.10	4.34
Racial/ethnic diversity (%)
White/Caucasian	12.93(22.45)	0.00	95.24
Black/African American	45.69(33.04)	0.00	100.00
Hispanic/Latinx	31.51(28.99)	0.00	100.00
Other	9.86(13.25)	0.00	85.00
% of girls in classroom	47.67(12.29)	0.00	85.00
% of children with IEP/IFSP	9.23(11.85)	0.00	63.64
% of children with limited English	15.43(20.52)	0.00	90.00
Child attends Head Start	54.84	-	-
Child attends public school pre-K	35.02	-	-

IEP = Individualized Educational Plan; IFSP = Individualized Family Service Plan.

Table 2. Unstandardized path coefficients for the association between age composition, classroom language and physical literacy environment, and child outcomes.

	Predictor
	Younger peers (vs. same age peers)	Older peers (vs. same age peers)	Older peers (vs. younger peers)
Outcome	B(SE)	B(SE)	B(SE)
Classroom physical literacy environment
Book area	0.03(0.08)	0.12(0.06)	0.10(0.08)
Book selection	−0.12(0.07)	−0.10(0.06)	−0.02(0.06)
Book use	−0.15(0.07)*	−0.01(0.075)	0.10(0.08)
Writing materials	−0.18(0.06)**	0.04(0.05)	0.16(0.05)**
Writing around room	−0.37(0.07)***	−0.06(0.06)	0.20(0.06)**
Children’s language and literacy skills
Receptive vocabulary	−0.01(0.03)	−0.03(0.03)	−0.03(0.03)
Expressive vocabulary	−0.00(0.02)	0.01(0.02)	0.01(0.02)
Phonological awareness	−0.07(0.04)	−0.00(0.04)	0.04(0.04)
Print knowledge	−0.05(0.04)	0.00(0.03)	0.04(0.03)

All continuous variables have been standardized; thus, all estimates can be interpreted as effect sizes Younger peers = 2–3 years old. Same age peers = 4 years old. Older peers = 5 years old.

Analyses controlled for the following child-level covariates: age, gender, race/ethnicity, household size, number of children under 18 years of age in home, household income, mothers’ education, father living at home, and English as first language.

Analyses controlled for the following teacher-level covariates: gender, age, race/ethnicity, years of education, highest degree of education obtained, years at current program, years at current position, participation in year 1 intervention group, participation in year 1 control group, added in year 2 (not in year 1), participation in year 2 intervention group, and participation in year 2 control group.

Analyses controlled for the following classroom-level covariates: class size, average classroom income-to-needs ratio, racial/ethnic diversity (%), percent of girls in classroom, percent of children with IEPs/IFSPs, percentage of children with limited English, classified as Head Start, classified as a public school.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Table 3. Unstandardized direct/indirect coefficients for classroom language and physical literacy environment as mediators between age composition and child outcomes.

	Outcome
Predictor	Receptive vocabulary	Expressive vocabulary	Phonological awareness	Print knowledge
Book area as the mediator
Book area ➔ child outcome	−0.07(0.02)**	0.03(0.02)	0.00(0.04)	0.03(0.03)
Younger vs. same ➔ book area ➔ child outcome	−0.00(0.01)	0.00(0.00)	0.00(0.00)	0.00(0.00)
Older vs. same ➔ book area ➔ child outcome	−0.01(0.01)	0.00(0.00)	0.00(0.00)	0.00(0.00)
Older vs. younger ➔ book area ➔ child outcome	−0.01(0.01)	0.00(0.00)	0.00(0.00)	0.00(0.00)
Book selection as the mediator
Book selection ➔ child outcome	0.03(0.03)	−0.04(0.03)	−0.05(0.05)	0.00(0.04)
Younger vs. same ➔ book selection ➔ child outcome	−0.00(0.00)	0.00(0.00)	0.01(0.01)	0.00(0.01)
Older vs. same ➔ book selection ➔ child outcome	−0.00(0.00)	0.00(0.00)	0.01(0.01)	0.00(0.00)
Older vs. younger ➔ book selection ➔ child outcome	−0.00(0.00)	0.00(0.00)	0.00(0.00)	0.00(0.00)
Book use as the mediator
Book use ➔ child outcome	−0.04(0.03)	−0.00(0.02)	0.04(0.05)	0.00(0.03)
Younger vs. same ➔ book use ➔ child outcome	0.01(0.01)	0.00(0.00)	−0.01(0.01)	−0.00(0.01)
Older vs. same ➔ book use ➔ child outcome	0.00(0.00)	0.00(0.00)	0.00(0.00)	0.00(0.00)
Older vs. younger ➔ book use ➔ child outcome	−0.00(0.00)	0.00(0.00)	0.00(0.01)	0.00(0.00)
Writing materials as the mediator
Writing materials ➔ child outcome	0.06(0.03)	−0.04(0.04)	−0.03(0.06)	−0.04(0.04)
Younger vs. same ➔ writing materials ➔ child outcome	−0.01(0.01)	0.01(0.01)	0.01(0.01)	0.01(0.01)
Older vs. same ➔ writing materials ➔ child outcome Older vs. younger ➔ writing materials ➔ child outcome	0.00(0.00) 0.01(0.01)	−0.00(0.00) −0.01(0.01)	−0.00(0.00) −0.01(0.01)	−0.00(0.00) −0.01(0.01)
Writing around room (WAR) as the mediator
Writing around room ➔ child outcome	0.03(0.03)	0.08(0.03)**	0.08(0.05)	0.03(0.04)
Younger vs. same ➔ WAR ➔ child outcome	−0.01(0.01)	−0.03(0.13)*	−0.03(0.02)	−0.01(0.02)
Older vs. same ➔ WAR ➔ child outcome	−0.00(0.00)	−0.01(0.01)	−0.01(0.01)	−0.00(0.00)
Older vs. younger ➔ WAR ➔ child outcome	0.01(0.01)	0.02(0.01)*	0.02(0.01)	0.01(0.01)

Younger peers = 2–3 years old. Same age peers = 4 years old. Older peers = 5 years old.

Analyses controlled for the following child-level covariates: age, gender, race/ethnicity, household size, number of children under 18 years of age in home, household income, mothers’ education, father living at home, and English as first language.

Analyses controlled for the following teacher-level covariates: gender, age, race/ethnicity, years of education, highest degree of education obtained, years at current program, years at current position, participation in year 1 intervention group, participation in year 1 control group, added in year 2 (not in year 1), participation in year 2 intervention group, and participation in year 2 control group.

Analyses controlled for the following classroom-level covariates: class size, average classroom income-to-needs ratio, racial/ethnic diversity (%), percent of girls in classroom, percent of children with IEPs/IFSPs, percentage of children with limited English, classified as Head Start, classified as a public school.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.