Antimicrobial drug residues in poultry products and implications on public health: A review

Figures & data

Table 1. Commonly applied antibiotics in poultry industry.

Antibiotics	Derivatives	Mechanism	References
Βeta-Lactams	Amoxicillin (aminopinicillin), penicillin, cephalosporin, ampicillin, monobactam, carbapenem	Bactericidal (prevents bacterial cell synthesis, disrupts cell wall integrity, inhibit transpeptidase)	[22,28]
Tetramisole	Levamisole	Effective against lungworms and gastrointestinal nematodes, mimics thymic hormone thymopoietin which affects many components of immune system	[29,30]
Quinolones/ Fluoroquinolones	Oxolinic acid, nalidixic acid, flumequine, enrofloxacin, norfloxacin, ciprofloxacin	Arrest bacterial cell growth via inhibiting DNA gyrases involved in DNA replication, recombination and repairing	[23,24,31]
Tetracyclines	Chlortetracycline, tigecycline, minocycline, oxytetracycline, chelocardine	Bacteriostatic and bactericidal, inhibit protein synthesis	[19,32]
Sulfonamides	Sulfacetamide, sulfamethoxypyridiazine, sulfamethoxydiazine, sulfamethoxazole, sulfadimidine, suflamethoxine, sulfadiazine, sulfafurazole,	Act as competitive antagonists in microbial cells, block formation of folic acid	[26,32]
Aminocyclitol	Spectinomycin, apramycin	Bacteriostatic and bacteriocidal, irreversible inhibition of protein synthesis	[32,33]
Amphenicols	Chloramphenicol, thiamphenicol, florfenicol	Inhibit protein synthesis	[1,32]
Coccidiostats	Salinomycin, diclazuril, robenidine, naduramicin, lasalocid, toltrazuril, halfoginone, nicarbazin, narasin, monensin, clopidol, ionophores, amprolium	Disrupt ion gradients across parasite cell membrane, inhibit parasite mitochondrial respiration, folic acid pathway, competitive inhibition of thiamine uptake	[10,34]
Macrolide	Erythromycin, tylosin, spiramycin	Act on 50S ribosomal subunit and inhibit protein synthesis	[1,32]
Nitrofurans	Furazolidone, furaltadone, nitrofurantoin, nitrofurazone	Bacteriostatic or bacteriocidal (at high doses)	[1,35]
Aminoglycosides	Neomycin, canamycin, gentamycin, netilmycin	Irreversible inhibition of protein synthesis	[32,36]

Table 2. Recommended withdrawal periods for some of the antimicrobial substances used in poultry industry.

Antimicrobial substances	Feed withdrawal period (days)	Legislating authority	References
Levamisole	7	Australia	[30]
Nicarbazin Narasin	5	European Commission	[37]
Ciprofloxacin	15–19	European Health Law and National Office of Animal Health, UK	[38]
Lasalocid Salinomycin Narasin Maduramicin Semduramicin	5	Finnish National Feed Control Programme	[2]
Monensin	3	Finnish National Feed Control Programme	[2]
Oxytetracycline Sulphadimidine	5	Saudi Arabia	[21]
Ampicillin	6	Saudi Arabia	[21]

Table 3. Permitted MRLs for various anticoccidial drugs in poultry products.

Antimicriobial agents	Derivatives	MRL (µg Kg^−Citation1)	Poultry item	Legislating authority	References
Anticoccidials	Monensin	2	Eggs	European union	[34,46]
	Narasin	2	Eggs
	Nicarbazin	100	Eggs
	Diclazuril	2	Eggs
	Semduramicin	2	Eggs
	Maduramicin	2	Eggs
	Robenidine	25	Eggs
	Decoquinate	20	Eggs
	Halofuginone	6	Eggs
	Toltrazuril	600	Liver
		400	Kidney
		100	Muscle
		200	Skin, fat
	Lasalocids	150	Eggs
		100	Liver, skin, fat
		50	Kidney
		20	Muscle

Table 4. Permitted MRLs for various drugs in poultry products.

Antimicriobial agents	Derivatives	MRL (µg Kg^−Citation1)	Poultry item	Legislating authorities	References
Sulfonamides	—	100	Tissues, eggs	Council Regulation (EEC), Codex Alimentarius, FAO/WHO and Code of Federal Regulations	[25]
	Sulfadiazine	100	Eggs	Codex Alimentarius Commission	[47]
	Chloramphenicol	0	Liver, muscles	European Union (EU)	[48]
Beta-Lactams	Benzylpenicillin (penicillin G)	50	Kidney, liver	FAO/WHO	[49]
Quinolones/flouroquinolones	Ciprofloxacin + enrofloxacin	200	Liver		[36]
		100	Muscles	European Union
		300	Kidneys
	Flumequine	50	Skin, fat		[31]
Aminoglycosides	Neomycin	500	Muscles, liver	European Union, Health Canada Veterinary Drugs Directorate, Australia	[36]
		5000	Kidney	European Union
		10000		Health Canada Veterinary Drugs Directorate, Australia
	Gentamicin	100–400	Eggs	USA	[45]
		100		Holland
		200		Germany
		100–200		France
Tetracyclines	Chlortetracycline	100	Muscles/meat	European Union, Australia	[36,48]
		200		Health Canada Veterinary Drugs Directorate
		2000		United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA)
		300	Liver	European Union
		600		Health Canada Veterinary Drugs Directorate
		6000		United States Food and Drug Administration
		100	Kidney	European Union
		1200		Health Canada Veterinary Drugs Directorate
	Oxytetracycline	100	Muscles/meat	European Union, Australia
		200		Health Canada Veterinary Drugs Directorate
		2000		United States Food and Drug Administration
		100–300	Liver	European Union
		6000		United States Food and Drug Administration
		600		Health Canada Veterinary Drugs Directorate
		1200	Kidney	Health Canada Veterinary Drugs Directorate
	Doxycycline	300	Liver	European Union
		100	Muscles
		600	Kidney
	Sipromycin	200	Meat	Codex Alimentarius Commission	[74]

Goetting, V.; Lee, K.A.; Tell, L.A. Pharmacokinetics of Veterinary Drugs in Laying Hens and Residues in Eggs: A Review of the Literature. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 2011, 34, 521–556.

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