Long-term particulate matter exposure: Attributing health effects to individual PM components

Figures & data

Table 1. Epidemiological studies with PM_2.5 and two or more components

						Significant results
Reference	Study location	Study period	Study population	Endpoint evaluated	Pollutants studied	One-pollutant models	Multipollutant models	Comments
Basu et al., 2013	California	2000–2006	646,000+ full-term births	Reduced birth weight	PM2.5, Al, ammonium, Br, Ca, Cl, Cu, EC, Fe, Pb, Mn, Ni, OC, K, Si, Na, sulfate, Ti, nitrate, V, Zn	PM2.5, Fe, Ti, V, sulfate, EC, Mn, Cu, Br, ammonium, Zn, nitrate, Ni, K, OC	Not reported	Results for full-term exposure; results for trimester exposure generally lower and not consistent
Eeftens et al., 2014	Europe	1995–2006	3 to 5 cohorts with 4800+ participants, trace element dependent	Pediatric lung function	Cu, Fe, K, Ni, S, Si, V, Zn	Not significant	When adjusted for PM2.5, Ni significant for FVC	Part of ESCAPE. Single pollutant results presented only for FEV1: Cu 1/5 cohorts; Fe 1/5 cohorts; S 1/5 cohorts, Si 1/5 cohorts
Fuertes et al., 2014	Europe	1994–2008	7 European birth cohorts, 16,000 participants	Early-life pneumonia	Cu, Fe, K, Ni, S, Si, V, Zn	Not significant	Not reported	Part of ESCAPE. Significant positive results for Fe (2/7 cohorts), S (negative, 1/6 cohorts), Si (1/6 cohorts), Zn (1/7 cohorts)
Lipfert et al., 2008	United States	1976–2001	70,000+ male veterans	Mortality	PM2.5, diesel PM, benzene, EC, Ni, As, Cl, Pb, Hg, Mn, sulfate	Benzene, diesel PM, EC, NOx, Ni, As, Cl, Pb, Hg	With traffic only: diesel PM, Cl, sulfate (negative)
Madrigano et al., 2011	Greater Boston, MA	1999–2007	Older men	DNA methylation	PM2.5, BC, sulfate	Not significant for exposures over 90 days	Not reported	Maximum exposure 180 days. Significant associations with BC for exposures of 28, 45, 60, and 90 days; with sulfate for 90 days
Ostro et al., 2011	California	1995–2007	130,000+ female public school professionals	Mortality: total, cardiopulmonary, IHD, pulmonary	PM2.5, EC, OC, sulfate, nitrate, Fe, K, Si, Zn	All cause: not significant; cardiopulmonary: PM2.5, sulfate, nitrate, Si; IHD: PM2.5, EC, OC, sulfate, nitrate, Fe, K, Si, Zn; pulmonary: not significant	Not reported	Corrected update of Ostro et al. (2010); exposure considered 30 km from monitor
Sun et al., 2013	United States	2000–2008	About 6300 subjects in 6 U.S. cities	Subclinical CVD markers: CIMT, CAC	PM2.5, EC, OC, Si, S	CAC: not significant; CIMT: PM2.5, EC, OC, S	OC most robust	Si results sensitive to model, exposure characterization
Thurston et al., 2013	United States	1982–2004	CPS-II cohort, 445,000+ participants	Mortality: all-cause, pulmonary, IHD, lung cancer	PM2.5, As, Ca, Cl, Fe, Pb, Mn, Ni, Se, V, Si, Zn, K, Na, OC, EC, S	All cause: As, Se, S; IHD: PM2.5, As, Cl, Fe, Pb, Ni, Se, Zn, EC, S; pulmonary: PM2.5, Ca, Cl (negative), Ni (negative), OC; lung cancer: S	Not reported
Vedal et al., 2013	United States	1994–2005	90,000 postmenopausal women in 45 U.S. cities	CVD events, coronary heart disease	PM2.5, EC, OC, S, Si	CHD: PM2.5, S; cerebrovascular disease: PM2.5, OC; MI: S; coronary revascularization: S; stroke: PM2.5, OC, S; CVD mortality: OC	Not reported
Vedal et al., 2013	United States	2000–2007	About 6800 participants in 6 U.S. cities	Subclinical CVD markers: CAC, CIMT	PM2.5, OC, EC, S, Si, Cu, Ni, V	CAC; log (CAC): Si, EC (negative and positive), OC, Cu; CIMT: PM2.5, S, OC, Cu	Not reported	Bergen et al. (2013) addressed measurement error for this cohort; OC, Si, S all significant after adjustment
Wang et al., 2014	Europe	1985–2007	19 European cohorts with 320,000+ participants	Cardiovascular mortality	Cu, Fe, K, Ni, S, Si, V, Zn	Not reported	Not reported	Part of ESCAPE. Significant positive results for 1/19 cohorts; Si 3/16 cohorts; Zn 4/19 cohorts
Wilhelm et al., 2011	Southern California	6/2004–4/2006	About 111,000 births in Los Angeles County	Preterm birth	Naphthalene, benzo(g,h,i) perylene, total PAHs, OC, EC, nitrate, PM2.5, diesel PM2.5, V, biomass PM2.5	Naphthalene, total PAHs, benzene, OC, EC, nitrate, diesel PM2.5, sulfate, biomass PM2.5	Multi-pollutant models with ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulfate, geological PM2.5: PM2.5	PAHs not included in two-pollutant models

Table 2. Epidemiological studies with PM_2.5 and one component

						Significant results
Reference	Study location	Study period	Study population	Endpoint evaluated	Pollutants studied	One-pollutant models	Two-pollutant models	Comments
Beelen et al., 2008	Netherlands	1986–1997	114,378 Dutch subjects	Lung cancer risk	BC, PM2.5	Only significant result was for BS in never-smokers	Not reported	Included in ESCAPE
Beelen et al., 2014	Europe	1992–2005 (cohort-dependent)	22 European cohorts	Mortality	PM2.5, PMabs, PM10, NOx	PM2.5	Nonsignificant adjusted for NOx; no PM2.5-PMabs joint models	Model 3; most comprehensive set of confounders. Part of ESCAPE.
Cesaroni et al., 2014	Europe	1992–2007 (cohort-dependent)	11 European cohorts	Acute coronary events	PM2.5, PMabs, PM10, NOx	PM2.5	Not reported	Model 3; most comprehensive set of confounders. Part of ESCAPE.
Dimakopoulou et al., 2014	Europe	1992–2007 (cohort-dependent)	16 European cohorts	Nonmalignant respiratory deaths	PM2.5, PMabs, PM10, NOx	Not significant.	Not reported	Part of ESCAPE.
Fuks et al., 2014	Europe	1992–2008 (cohort-dependent)	15 European cohorts	Blood pressure	PM2.5, PMabs, PM10, NOx	Systolic BP: PMcoarse, PM10, NOx; Diastolic BP: PM2.5	Not reported	Part of ESCAPE.
Gan et al., 2010	Vancouver, Canada	1994–2002	Metropolitan Vancouver	Coronary heart disease hospitalizations and mortality	BC, PM2.5	BC: hospitalization, mortality	BC remained significant for hospitalization and mortality
Gan et al., 2013	Vancouver, Canada	1994–2002	Metropolitan Vancouver	COPD hospitalizations and mortality	BC, PM2.5	BC: hospitalization, mortality	BC remained significant for hospitalization and mortality
Gehring et al., 2013	Europe	1995–2006 (cohort dependent)	5 European cohorts	Pediatric lung function	PM2.5, PMabs, PM10, NOx	Using address at birth: not significant	Not reported	Part of ESCAPE.
						Using current address: NOx, PMabs, PM2.5
Gruzieva et al., 2014	Europe	1995–2006 (cohort dependent)	5 European cohorts	Allergic sensitization	PM2.5, PMabs, PM10, NOx	Not significant	Not reported	Part of ESCAPE.
Guxens et al., 2014	Europe	1997–2008 (cohort dependent)	6 European cohorts	Measures of cognitive and psychomotor development	PM2.5, PMabs, PM10, NOx	Not significant	Not reported	Part of ESCAPE. Significant associations with NOx.
Jerrett et al., 2007	United States	1982–2000; five discrete time periods considered (1982–1986, 1987–1990, 1991–1994, 1995–1998, 1999–2000	ACS cohort	Mortality	PM2.5, sulfate	PM2.5: cardiopulmonary mortality 1982–2000 PM2.5: cardiopulmonary mortality 1995–1998, 1999–2000 PM2.5: cardiopulmonary mortality 1995–1998, 1999–2000 Sulfate: all cause mortality 1982–1986, 1987–1990; cardiopulmonary mortality 1982–1986, 1999–2000	Not reported
Krewski et al., 2012	United States	1982–2000	ACS cohort	Mortality	PM2.5, sulfate	PM2.5: all cause, cardiopulmonary, CVD mortality Sulfate: all cause, cardiopulmonary, CVD, lung cancer mortality	Not reported
Lenters et al., 2010	Netherlands	1999–2000	750 young adults	Vascular damage	BC, PM2.5	Not significant	Not reported	PM2.5 significant for never-smokers
MacIntyre et al., 2014	Europe	1994–2010	10 European cohorts	Pediatric respiratory infections	PM2.5, PMabs	Pneumonia: PM2.5	Not reported	Part of ESCAPE.
Pedersen et al., 2013	Europe	1994–2011	12 European cohorts	Low birthweight	PM2.5, PMabs	PM2.5	PM2.5 remained significant when adjusted for PMabs, NOx	Part of ESCAPE.
Pope et al., 2002	United States	1982–1988	ACS cohort	Mortality	PM2.5, sulfate	PM2.5: all-cause, cardipulmonary, lung cancer mortality; sulfate: all-cause, cardiopulmonary, lung cancer, all other cause mortality	Not reported
Raaschou-Nielson at al., 2013	Europe	Since 1990s (cohort dependent)	17 European cohorts	Lung cancer incidence	PM2.5, PMabs	PM2.5	Not reported	Part of ESCAPE.
Schikowski et al., 2014	Europe	Pre-2008–2011	4 European cohorts	Prevalence, incidence of COPD	PM2.5, PMabs	Not significant	Not reported	Part of ESCAPE.
Stafoggia et al., 2014	Europe	1992–2007	11 European cohorts	Incidence of cerebrovascular events	PM2.5, PMabs	Not significant	Not reported	Part of ESCAPE.

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