Figures & data
Figure 1. High performance liquid chromatography for cannabinoids in hemp seed ethanol extract (HE). (A) Standard cannabinoids and (B) cannabinoids in HE. 1: cannabidivarinic acid; 2: cannabidivarin; 3: cannabidiolic acid; 4: tetrahydrocannabivarin; and 5: tetrahydrocannabinolic acid-A.
Figure 2. Effects of hemp seed ethanol extract (HE) on the locomotor activity of CPZ-induced Drosophila melanogaster depression model. This experiment was performed under constant darkness for 7 days. Average activity in a 30 min interval was calculated over 7 days. (A) Typical actograms of individual normal flies, control flies exposed to 0.1% CPZ, and flies exposed to different doses of HE and 0.1% CPZ. Locomotor activity during subjective (B) daytime and (C) night-time assessed using the Drosophila Activity Monitor system. Black and white bars on top of the actograms indicate dark and light, and the dark was 22:00–10:00 and the light phase was 10:00–22:00, respectively. Data are expressed as mean ± standard error of the mean (SEM) for each group (n = 10). Different symbols indicate significant differences at #p < 0.05 vs. normal group, and *p < 0.05 vs. control group. CPZ: chlorpromazine.
Figure 3. Effects of hemp seed ethanol extracts (HE) on behavioural patterns in CPZ-induced Drosophila melanogaster depression model. Locomotor activity in a 30 min interval was calculated at 7 days. Subjective daytime (A) activity and (B) total amount of sleep; subjective night-time (C) activity and (D) total amount of sleep; and (E) number of sleep bouts of normal group, control group and treatment groups using the Drosophila Activity Monitor (DAM) system. Data are expressed as mean ± standard error of the mean (SEM) for each group. Different symbols indicate significant differences at #p < 0.05, and ###p < 0.001 vs. normal group, and *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, and ***p < 0.001 vs. control group. CPZ: chlorpromazine.
Figure 4. Effects of hemp seed ethanol extract (HE) on locomotor ability in CPZ-induced Drosophila melanogaster depression model. (A) Distance moved, (B) velocity, (C) moving, (D) not moving, and (E) mobility of normal group, control group and treatment groups using the open field test. After 7 days of HE and/or chlorpromazine administration, the locomotor activities during the 5 min observation period in the video tracking were analyzed using EthoVision-XT system. Data are expressed as mean ± standard error of the mean (SEM) for each group. Different symbols indicate significant differences at #p < 0.05, and ###p < 0.001 vs. normal group, and *p < 0.05, and ***p < 0.001 vs. control group. CPZ: chlorpromazine.
Figure 5. Effects of hemp seed ethanol extract (HE) on (A) Dop1R1 and (B) 5-HT1A mRNA expression in Drosophila melanogaster heads. After 7 d of HE and/or CPZ administration, the head of D. melanogaster was homogenized, and the expression levels of genes in the homogenates were estimated. Data are expressed as mean ± standard error of the mean (SEM) for each group. Different symbols indicate significant differences at #p < 0.05, ##p < 0.01, and ###p < 0.001 vs. normal group, and *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, and ***p < 0.001 vs. control group. CPZ: chlorpromazine; Dop1R1: dopamine 1-like receptor 1; 5-HT1A: 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor.
Figure 6. Effects of hemp seed ethanol extract (HE) on levels of depression-related neurotransmitters (epinephrine, dopamine, L-DOPA, 5-HTP, and serotonin) in Drosophila melanogaster heads. After 7 days of HE and/or CPZ administration, the head of D. melanogaster was homogenized, and the levels of catecholamines in the homogenates were estimated. Data are expressed as mean ± standard error of the mean (SEM) for each group. Different symbols indicate significant differences at #p < 0.05, ##p < 0.01, and ###p < 0.001 vs. normal group, and *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, and ***p < 0.001 vs. control group. CPZ: chlorpromazine; L-DOPA: levodopa; 5-HTP: 5-hydroxytryptophan; ns: not significant.
