Investigating causality with fecal microbiota transplantation in rodents: applications, recommendations and pitfalls

Figures & data

Figure 1. Parameters influencing the experimental design of fecal microbiota transplant studies

Table 1. Frequently used antibiotics for gut microbiota depletion and their characteristics

Antibiotics	Spectrum of activity	Intestinal Absorption
Ampicillin (± sulbactam)	Broad spectrum (mostly Gram +)	Extensive 30–55%
Ciprofloxacin	Broad spectrum	Extensive
Streptomycin	Broad spectrum	Poor
Neomycin	Broad spectrum	Poor
Kanamycin	Broad spectrum	Unknown
Imipenem (Cilastatin)	Broad spectrum: both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria	Poor
Vancomycin	Gram-positive Bacteria	Poorly absorbed from GI, systemic absorption (up to 60%) may occur following intraperitoneal administration
Metronidazole	Narrow spectrum: anaerobic bacteria	Complete: lipophilic , rapidly and widely distributed after absorption.
Gentamicin	Mostly Gram negative	Poor^Citation30
Colistin	Gram negative Bacilli	Very poor absorption from gastrointestinal tract

Table 2. Advantages and limitations: administration of antibiotics

	Advantages	Limitations
Drinking water (Table 4)	Suitable for repeated administration Least stressful method Good absorption in GI tract	Single housing necessary if the dose needs to be monitored Consumption variability if grouped together Unpalatability can restrict intake leading to dehydration^Citation26
Oral gavage (Table 5)	Dosage monitored Good absorption in GI tract	Not very suitable for repeated administration The gavage procedure is stressful for the animal Repeat dosing should be carried out at approx. the same time each day Severe adverse effect if gavage tubes are incorrectly placed Technically difficult method
Combination (Table 6)	Abx can be administered accordingly to their pharmacokinetics Good absorption in GI tract

Table 3. Comparisons of different animal models for FMT

	Advantages	Limitations
Gnotobiotic animals GF	Microbial depletion guaranteed (within detection limits) No competition with the commensal microbiota to colonize the gut Best for testing specific mechanisms of interventions on host	No similar condition in humans to which it can be compared Experimental groups to which we can compare recolonized GF animals to: conventional animals, GF animals, or re-colonized animals? Expensive, requires access to specialized equipment and training Altered development (immune system very impacted)
Gnotobiotic animals -Defined microbiota (SPF)	Absence of specific pathogen	Basal composition unknown Competition with commensal microbiota to colonize the gut
Gnotobiotic animals -Defined microbiota (ASF)	Simplified model of a commensal microbiota	Competition with commensal microbiota to colonize the gut Not representative of a real microbiome-host interaction
Antibiotic-treated animals	Born and raised with a conventional microbiota Allow us to study specific life stages	Overgrowth of pathogenic species possible Antibiotic resistance genes Systemic side effects Antibiotic treatment varies across studies
Conventional animals	No abnormal development or side effects of a treatment	Unknown basal composition Native gut microbiota exert different selective pressures on exogenous colonizers
Laxative-depletion	Comparable to what is currently done in human Depletion seems to be effective at certain doses	Side effects of laxative use are not well-known Paucity of studies using this model in pre-clinical settings
Vertical microbiota transmission model	Natural transmission of the gut microbiota No abnormal development or side effects of a treatment	Not enough information on vertically or horizontally transmissible strains
Bedding material/coprophagy	Alters cecal content but also metabolic features and cognition Frequency of coprophagy can be beneficial (not a one-time screenshot of the donor’s microbiota) Easiest and least invasive/stressful model of transferring microbes	Not suitable for human to mice FMT Dose and frequency of transfer is not controlled or guaranteed Could imply single housing of rodents to control for coprophagy Bacterial transmission not targeted and probably restricted to oxygen-friendly microorganism

Table 4. Drinking water – protocols for antibiotic-induced gut depletion

DURA-TION	ANTIBIOTIC COCKTAILS CONCENTRATIONS	DISEASES (ICD 10)	PUBLICA-TIONS
2 days	streptomycin (500 g/ L)	Diseases of the circulatory system (Stroke)	^Citation32
	ciprofloxacin (0.2 g/L) + metronidazole (1 g/L)	Endocrine, nutritional and metabolic diseases (Obesity)	^Citation33
5 days	ampicillin (0.5 g/L)	Infectious disease	^Citation34
1 week	ampicillin (1 g/L)	GI disorder (due to antibiotic- and chemotherapy-induced gut dysbiosis)	^Citation35
1 or 2 weeks	amoxicillin–clavulanic acid (1 g/L)	Diseases of the circulatory system (Stroke)	^Citation36
7 days	Systemic antibiotic cocktail: ampicillin (1 g/L) + cefoperazone sodium salt (1 g/L) + clindamycin (1 g/L) OR Non-absorbable antibiotic cocktail: ertapenem sodium (1 g/L) + neomycin sulfate (1 g/L) + vancomycin hydrochloride (1 g/L)	FMT protocol	^Citation37
7 days	ampicillin (0.01 g/1 L) + metronidazol (0.01 g/L) + neomycin (0.01 g/L)	Diseases of the digestive system (Hepatic steatosis)	^Citation38
10 days	vancomycin (1 g/L) + metronidazole (1 g/L) + polymyxin B (1 g/L) + cefotaxime (2 g/L)	FMT protocol	^Citation39
	cefoxitin (1 g/L) + gentamicin (1 g/L) + metronidazole (1 g/L) + vancomycin (1 g/L)	Immune system	^Citation40
10–14 days	ampicillin (1 g/L) + metronidazole (1 g/L) + neomycin sulfate (1 g/L) + vancomycin (0.5 g/L)	Infectious disease	^Citation41
14 days	ampicillin (1 g/L) + metronidazole (1 g/L) + neomycin (1 g/L) + vancomycin (0.5 g/L)	Immune system	^Citation42
14 days	ampicillin (1 g/L) + metronidazole (1 g/L) + neomycin sulfate (1 g/L)	Diseases of the nervous system (Alzheimer's disease)	^Citation43
14 days	ampicillin (1 g/L) + metronidazole (1 g/L) + neomycin (1 g/L) + vancomycin (0.5 g/L) supplemented with 1% (wt/vol) glucose.	Immune system	^Citation44
14 days	ampicillin (1 g/L) + metronidazole (1 g/L) + neomycin (1 g/L) + vancomycin (0.5 g/L)	Endocrine, nutritional and metabolic diseases (Obesity)	^Citation45
14 days	ampicillin (1 g/L) + metronidazole (1 g/L) + neomycin sulfate (1 g/L)	Mental and behavioral disorders (Depression)	^Citation46
14 days	ampicillin (1 g/L) + vancomycin (0.5 g/L) + neomycin (1 g/L) + metronidazole (1 g/L)	Antibiotic effects	^Citation47
2–3 weeks	ampicillin (1 g/l) + streptomycin (5 g/l) + colistin (1 mg/ml) or vancomycin alone (0.25 g/L) or imipenem alone (0.25 g/L) or colistin alone (2.103 U/ml)	Neoplasms (Cancer)	^Citation48
2–3 weeks	ampicillin (1 g/L) + vancomycin (0.5 g/L) + neomycin (1 g/L) + metronidazole (1 g/L)	Infectious diseases	^Citation49
3 weeks	ampicillin (1 g/L) + neomycin (1 g/L) + streptomycin (1 g/L) + kanamycin (1 g/L) and/or anti-fungal cocktail drinking water amphotericin (0.2 g/L) + fluconazole (0.5 g/L) + 5-fluorocytosine (0.5 g/L)	Infectious diseases	^Citation50
3 weeks	ampicillin (1 g/L) + metronidazole (1 g/L) + neomycin sulfate (1 g/L) + vancomycin (0.5 g/L)	Infectious diseases	^Citation51
3 weeks	vancomycin (0.5 g/l) + ampicillin (1 g/l) + kanamycin (1 g/l) + metronidazole(1 g/l)	Immune system	^Citation52
3 weeks	ampicillin (1 g/L) + metronidazole (1 g/L) + neomycin (1 g/L) + vancomycin (0.5 g/L)	Immune system	^Citation53
3 weeks	vancomycin (0.5 g/L) + neomycin sulfate (1 g/L)+ ampicillin (1 g/L) + metronidazole (1 g/L)	Immune system	^Citation54
3 weeks	ampicillin (1 g/L) + metronidazole (1 g/L) + vancomycin (0.5 g/L) + neomycin trisulfate (1 g/L)	Diseases of the digestive system	^Citation55
4 weeks	ampicillin (1 g/L) + vancomycin (0.5 g/L) + polymyxin (0.1 g/L)	Immune system	^Citation56
4 weeks	ampicillin (1 g/L) + neomycin (1 g/L) + metronidazole (1 g/L) + vancomycin (0.5 g/L)	Diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue	^Citation57
4 weeks	vancomycin (0.5 g/L) + neomycin (1 g/L) + ampicillin (1 g/L) + metronidazole (1 g/L)	Diseases of the digestive system	^Citation58
4 weeks	ampicillin (1 g/L) + neomycin (1 g/L) + metronidazole (1 g/L) + vancomycin (0.5 g/L) or vancomycin (0.5 g/L) alone	Bone formation	^Citation59
4–5 weeks	ampicillin (1 g/L) + neomycin (0.5 g/L) + streptomycin (0.5 g/L) + vancomycin (0.5 g/L)	Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs and certain disorders involving the immune mechanism	^Citation60
7 weeks	ampicillin (1 g/L) + vancomycin (0.5 g/L) + ciprofloxacin (0.2 g/L) + imipenem plus cilastatin (250 mg/L) + metronidazole (1 g/L)	Mental and behavioral disorders (depression)	^Citation61

Table 5. Oral gavage – protocols for antibiotic-induced gut depletion

DURATION	ANTIBIOTIC COCKTAILS CONCENTRATIONS	DISEASES (ICD 10)	PUBLICATIONS
3 days	ampicillin (1 g/L) + neomycin (0.5 g/L) + vancomycin (0.5 g/L) + metronidazole (1 g/L)	Aging	^Citation62
3 days	ampicillin (500 mg) + vancomycin (250 mg) + neomycin (500 mg) + metronidazole (250 mg)	Diseases of the digestive system	^Citation63
3 days	ampicillin (1 g/l) + streptomycin (5 g/L) + colistin (1 g/L) + vancomycin (0.25 g/L)	Neoplasms (Cancer)	^Citation64
5 days	ciprofloxacin (0.1 g/L) + ampicillin (0.5 g/L)	Diseases of the digestive system	^Citation65
5 days	ampicillin (200 mg/kg) + neomycin sulfate (200 mg/kg) + metronidazole (200 mg/kg) + vancomycin (100 mg/kg)	Infectious diseases	^Citation66
7 days	ampicillin (1 g/ml) + metronidazole (1 g/ml) + neomycin sulfate (1 g/ml) + vancomycin (0.5 g/ml)	Diseases of the nervous system (Encephalomyelitis)	^Citation67
7 days	ampicillin (200 mg/kg) + neomycin (200 mg/kg) + metronidazole (200 mg/kg) + vancomycin (100 mg/kg)	FMT protocol	^Citation24
10 days	metronidazole (0.1 mg/g bodyweight) + ampicillin (0.26 mg/g bodyweight) + neomycin (0.26 mg/g bodyweight) + vancomycin (0.13 mg/g bodyweight)	Disease of the circulatory system	^Citation68
11 days	ampicillin (43.2 mg) + bacitracin (108.0 mg) + meropenem (21.6 mg) + neomycin (108.0 mg) + vancomycin (6.48 mg) in 4,5 mL of distilled water	Antibiotic effects	^Citation31
14 days	ampicillin (1 g/L) + neomycin sulfate (1 g/L) + metronidazole (1 g/L)	Mental and behavioral disorders (depression)	^Citation69
14 days	ampicillin (1 g/L) + neomycin sulfate (1 g/L) + metronidazole (1 g/L)	Mental and behavioral disorders (depression)	^Citation70
14 days	ampicillin (0.2 g/L) + neomycin (0.2 g/L) + metronidazole (0.2 g/L) + vancomycin (0.1 g/L)	Neoplasms (Cancer)	^Citation71
14 days	ampicillin (1 g/L) + vancomycin (0.5 g/L) + neomycin (1 g/L) + metronidazole (1 g/L) + ciprofloxacin (1 g/L) in some experiments	Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs and certain disorders involving the immune mechanism	^Citation47
14 days	ampicillin (0.25 mg/day) + gentamicin (0.25 mg/day) + metronidazole (0.25 mg/day) + neomycin (0.25 mg/day) + vancomycin (0.125 mg/day)	Mental and behavioral disorders (depression)	^Citation72
14 days	ampicillin (2.5 g/L) + metronidazole (2.5 g/L) + neomycin (2.5 g/L) + vancomycin (1.0 g/L)	Sleep	^Citation73
3 weeks	ampicillin (1 g/L) + metronidazole (1 g/L) + neomycin (1 g/L) + vancomycin (0.5 g/L)	Immune system	^Citation74

Table 6. Combined oral gavage and drinking water administration – protocols for antibiotic-induced gut depletion

DURATION	ANTIBIOTIC COCKTAILS CONCENTRATIONS	DISEASES (ICD 10)	PUBLICATIONS
5 consecutive days of gavage + 5 weeks in drinking water	Oral gavage: ampicillin, neomycin, metronidazole and vancomycin for 5 days (0.2 mL: 10 mg of each antibiotic per mouse per day) Drinking water: ampicillin (1 g/L) + neomycin (1 g/L) + metronidazole: (1 g/L) + vancomycin: (0.5 g/L) for 5 weeks	Endocrine, nutritional and metabolic diseases (Obesity)	^Citation75
7 days	Oral gavage: vancomycin (50 mg/kg) + neomycin (100 mg/kg) + metronidazole (100 mg/kg); Drinking water: Ampicillin (1 g/L)	Disease of the circulatory system (Stoke, Seizure)	^Citation76
14 days	Oral gavage: vancomycin (5 g/L) + neomycin, (10 g/L) + metronidazole (10 g/L) + amphotericinB (0.1 g/L); Drinking water: ampicillin (1 g/l) + last 3 days: omeprazole via oral gavage (50 mg/kg, once a day)	Disease of the nervous system (Epilepsy)	^Citation77
14 days	Oral gavage: 3 days of amphotericin-B (1 mg/kg BW) every 12 h + from day 3 Drinking water: ampicillin (1 g/L) + Oral gavage: every 12 h vancomycin (50 mg/kg BW) + neomycin (100 mg/kg BW) + metronidazole (100 mg/kg BW) + + amphotericin-B (1 mg/kg BW)	Antibiotic-depletion protocol	^Citation26
14 days	Oral gavage: Vancomycin (250 mg) + neomycin-sulfate (500 mg) + ampicillin (500 mg) + metronidazole (500 mg) supplemented with 10 g grape Kool-Aid in 500 mL water + Driking water: Ampicillin (1 g/L)	Disease of the respiratory system (Influenza)	^Citation78
17 days	Oral gavage: 3 days of amphotericin-B (1 mg/kg BW) every 12 h + from day 3 Drinking water: ampicillin ad libitum (1 g/L) + Oral gavage: every 12 h vancomycin (50 mg/kg BW) + neomycin (100 mg/kg BW) + metronidazol (100 mg/kg BW) + + amphotericin-B (1 mg/kg BW)	FMT Protocol	^Citation79

Figure 2. Most commonly used animal models as recipients for fecal microbiota transplants

Table 7. Rodent strains used in preclinical FMT studies over the last 30 years in the most prevalent topics

DISEASES	DONORS	RECIPITENTS	REFERENCES
Aging	Mice	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation32,Citation43,Citation105,Citation136,Citation145,Citation146
		Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation147
		Mice: C57BL/6N	^Citation62
		Mice: BALB/c	^Citation105,Citation148
		Mice: Swiss Webster	^Citation149
		Mice: SAMP8	^Citation150
		Mice/C3H/HeN	^Citation151
	Rats	Rats: Dahl	^Citation152
		Rats: Sprague-Dawley	^Citation153
	Human	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation154
		Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation155,Citation156
Alcohol-related disorders	Mice	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation157,Citation158
		Mice: C57Bl/6 J	^Citation159,Citation160
	Rats	Rats: Sprague Dawley	^Citation161
	Human donors	Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation162,Citation163
		Mice: NSG	^Citation164
Alzheimer’s disease	Mice	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation43
		Mice: ADLPAPT	^Citation165
		Mice: SAMP8 mice	^Citation150
		Mice: APPswe/PS1dE9 transgenic (Tg) mouse model	^Citation7
	Rats	Rats: Sprague Dawley	^Citation166
	Human	Mice: C57BL/6N	^Citation167
Autism-spectrum disorder	Mice	Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation168,Citation169
	Human	Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation103
		Mice: C57BL/6N	^Citation170
Cancer	Mice	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation171–182
		Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation35,Citation183–186
		Mice: ICR	^Citation187
		Mice: Swiss webster	^Citation173,Citation174,Citation188
		Mice: BALB/c	^Citation171,Citation189–192
	Rats	Rats: Sprague-Dawley	^Citation193,Citation194
	Human	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation71,Citation195–197
		Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation198
		Mice: C57BL/6, ALB/c or IQI	^Citation199
		Mice: 5TGM1	^Citation200
		Mice/C3H/HeN	^Citation201
Cognition	Mice	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation43,Citation145,Citation202
	Rats	Rats: Sprague-Dawley	^Citation153
Colitis	Mice	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation74,Citation178,Citation179,Citation203–236
		Mice: C57BL/6 j	^Citation95,Citation237–247
		Mice: C57BL/6NTac	^Citation248
		Mice: C57BL/6 NCr	^Citation249
		Mice: Swiss Webster	^Citation229,Citation250–252
		Mice: BALB/c	^Citation191,Citation239,Citation253–261
		Mice: CBA/CaJ	^Citation230
		Mice: 129SvEv	^Citation262
		Mice: CBA and Swiss Jim Lambert (SJL)	^Citation263
	Rats	Rats: Sprague-Dawley	^Citation264–267
		Mice: BALB/c	^Citation261
	Human	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation268
		Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation268–270
		Mice and Rats: BALB/c and Sprague-Dawley	^Citation271
Clostridium Difficile infection	Mice	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation272
		Mice: Swiss-Webster	^Citation273
	Human	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation274–276
		Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation277,Citation278
Diabetes	Mice	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation279
		Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation279
		Mice: C57BL/6 NTac	^Citation280
		Mice: db/dd and C57BL/Ks	^Citation281
		Mice: Kunming	^Citation282
		Mice: NOD	^Citation283–285
		Mice: NOR mice	^Citation285
		Mice: BALB/c	^Citation286
	Rats	Rats: Sprague Dawley	^Citation287
	Human	Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation288
		Mice: NOD	^Citation289
		Mice: db/db and db/m unknown genetic background	^Citation290
Depression	Mice	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation61,Citation291,Citation292
		Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation293
		Mice: BALB/c	^Citation294
	Rats	Rats: Sprague Dawley	^Citation10,Citation295,Citation296
		Rats: Long–Evans	^Citation297
		Rats: Flinders sensitive line and Flinders resistant line	^Citation298
		Rats Lewis	^Citation299
		Rats: Wistar	^Citation300
		Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation46
	Human	Mice: Kunming	^Citation301,Citation302
Exercise	Mice	Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation303
		Mice: C57BL/6 JNarl	^Citation33
Irritable Bowel Syndrome/Irritable Bowel Disease	Mice	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation174,Citation251,Citation304
		Mice: Swiss Webster	^Citation174,Citation251
	Rats	Rats: Sprague-Dawley	^Citation305
		Rats: Long-Evans	^Citation306
		Rats: Wistar	^Citation307
	Human donors	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation308–311
		Mice: ATG16L1T300A KO mice unknown genetic background	^Citation312
		Rats: Sprague-Dawley	^Citation313
		Rats: Fisher 344 albinos	^Citation314
Liver-associated conditions	Mice	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation315–321
		Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation322–327
		Mice: DBA/2 J	^Citation327
		Mice: IRC	^Citation328
		Mice: Swiss Webster	^Citation329
	Rats	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation330
		Rats: Sprague-Dawley	^Citation331
	Human	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation38
		Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation96,Citation163,Citation332,Citation333
		Mice: SAMP	^Citation334
		Mice: Swiss/NIH	^Citation335
		Rats: Sprague Dawley	^Citation336
		Rats: F344	^Citation337
Malnutrition	Mice	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation338
		Mice: A/J and C57BL/6 J	^Citation339
	Human	Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation106,Citation340,Citation341
Metabolic syndrome	Mice	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation342–345
		Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation346,Citation347
		Mice: C57BL/6 N	^Citation348
		Mice: ICR	^Citation347,Citation349,Citation350
		Mice: Swiss Webster	^Citation251,Citation351,Citation352
		Mice: BALB/c	^Citation353
	Human donors	Mice: Swiss-Webster	^Citation352
Multiple sclerosis	Mice	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation354,Citation355
		Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation356,Citation357
	Rats	Rats: Dark Agouti	^Citation358
	Human	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation359
Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD)	Mice	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation360,Citation361
		Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation362
Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH)	Mice	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation363
Obesity	Mice	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation75,Citation141,Citation222,Citation364–373
		Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation346,Citation374–391
		C57Bl/6 N	^Citation392–395
		Mice: C57BL/6 NTac	^Citation396
		Mice: C57BL/6 JNarl	^Citation33
		Mice: SwissWebster	^Citation149,Citation397
		Mice: ICR	^Citation398
		Mice: ob/ob	^Citation399
		Mice: Atg7	^Citation400
	Rats	Rats: Sprague Dawley	^Citation401–406
		Rats: Wistar	^Citation45
		Rats: LZ and ZDF	^Citation407
	Pigs	Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation408
	Human	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation409,Citation410
		Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation411–415
		Mice: Swiss Webster	^Citation416,Citation417
		Mice: db/db and db/m unknown genetic background	^Citation290
Pancreatitis	Mice	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation418–420
		Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation421,Citation422
		Mice: MRL/MpJ	^Citation423
		Mice: NOD/MrkTac	^Citation424
Parkinson	Mice	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation5
		Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation425
Polycystic ovary syndrome	Mice	Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation426
	Rats	Rats: Sprague-Dawley	^Citation427
	Human	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation428
Schizophrenia	Human donors	Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation429,Citation430
		Mice: Kunming	^Citation431
Sepsis	Mice	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation432–435
		Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation436
		Mice: Swiss Webster	^Citation435
	Rats	Rats: Sprague-Dawley	^Citation437,Citation438
		Rats: Wistar	^Citation439,Citation440
	Human	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation66
Stress	Mice	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation441
		Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation72,Citation293,Citation442,Citation443
		Mice: SKG and BALB/c	^Citation444
		Mice: BALB/c	^Citation14
	Rats	Rats: Wistar-Kyoto and Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats	^Citation445
		Rats: Sprague-Dawley	^Citation446–448
	Human	Mice: C57BL6/J and NSG	^Citation449
Stroke	Mice	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation32,Citation36,Citation146,Citation450
		Mice: C57BL/6 J	^Citation451
		Mice: BALB/c	^Citation452
	Rats	Rats: Sprague Dawley	^Citation453,Citation454
		Rats: Dahl	^Citation455
	Human	Mice: C57BL/6	^Citation456,Citation457

Figure 3. Fecal microbiota transfer: from donor sample collection to the tractability of the microbial transplant

Figure 4. Key questions when designing an FMT experiment

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