β-glucans: wide-spectrum immune-balancing food-supplement-based enteric (β-WIFE) vaccine adjuvant approach to COVID-19

Figures & data

Table 1. Various immune effector mechanisms and pathways through which β-glucans may be able to serve as vaccine adjuvants for COVID-19 therapy

S. No	Immune mechanisms of β-glucans as vaccine adjuvants for COVID-19 therapy	Reference(s)
1	Trained immunity (TRIM); both central and peripheral	10–12
2	Epigenetic reprogramming in innate immune cells	11
3	Activation of pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs) such as toll-like (TLR) and C-type lectin-like receptors, including dectin-1	12,13
4	Stimulation of monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, and NK cells	13,14
5	Enhancing antimicrobial activity of mononuclear cells and neutrophils	13,14
6	Expanding and activating antigen-specific CD4 and CD8 T cells	15,16
7	Antiviral response by stimulating production of IFN-γ	15
8	Induction of B lymphocytes to produce antibodies	16
9	Increasing of salivary immunoglobulins (sIgM, sIgG, and sIgA) for saliva-based mucosal immunity	16
10	Induction of mucosal immunity including that of the gut by acting on reticuloendothelial system	8,13,39,41
11	Immune balance against cytokine storm by decreasing levels of IL-6, CCL2, and CXCL10 levels and increasing levels of IL-7, IL-8, IFN-γ, and sFAS	28,35,36

Figure 1. Schematic illustration describing (i) stepwise, the mechanisms of orally administered vaccines starting from Peyer’s patches of the gut to induce mucosal immunity and parenteral vaccines starting from immune cells of the skin to induce systemic immunity, (ii) ability of β-glucans to activate all aspects of the immune system including the central trained immunity (TRIM) of bone marrow and (iii) the strategic key advantages of β-glucans at five different stages and actions to play a role as vaccine adjuvant

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