β-glucans: wide-spectrum immune-balancing food-supplement-based enteric (β-WIFE) vaccine adjuvant approach to COVID-19

References

• Burton DR, Walker LM. Rational vaccine design in the time of COVID-19. Cell Host Microbe. 2020;27:695–98.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chung YH, Beiss V, Fiering SN, Steinmetz NF. COVID-19 vaccine frontrunners and their nanotechnology design. ACS Nano. 2020 Oct 27;14(10):12522–37. doi:10.1021/acsnano.0c07197.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• COVID-19 vaccines. [accessed 2020 Dec 23]. https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/covid-19-vaccines.
   Google Scholar
• Kaur SP, Gupta V. COVID-19 vaccine: A comprehensive status report. Virus Res. 2020;288:198114. doi:10.1016/j.virusres.2020.198114.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• COVID-19 vaccine tracker. [ accessed 2020 Dec 23]. https://www.raps.org/news-and-articles/news-articles/2020/3/covid-19-vaccine-tracker.
   Google Scholar
• Koirala A, Joo YJ, Khatami A, Chiu C, Britton PN. Vaccines for COVID-19: the current state of play. Paediatr Respir Rev. 2020;35:43–49. doi:10.1016/j.prrv.2020.06.010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koyama T, Weeraratne D, Snowdon JL, Parida L. Emergence of drift variants that may affect COVID-19 vaccine development and antibody treatment. Pathogens. 2020;9:324. doi:10.3390/pathogens9050324.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beverley PC. Immunology of vaccination. Br Med Bull. 2002;62:15–28. doi:10.1093/bmb/62.1.15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vetvicka V, Vannucci L, Sima P, Richter J. Beta glucan: supplement or drug? From laboratory to clinical trials. Molecules. 2019;24:1251. doi:10.3390/molecules24071251.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geller A, Yan J. Could the induction of trained immunity by β-glucan serve as a defense against COVID-19? Front Immunol. 2020;11:1782. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2020.01782.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arts RJW, Carvalho A, La Rocca C, Palma C, Rodrigues F, Silvestre R, Kleinnijenhuis J, Lachmandas E, Gonçalves LG, Belinha A, et al. Immunometabolic pathways in BCG-induced trained immunity. Cell Rep. 2016;17:2562–71. doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2016.11.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Del Cornò M, Gessani S, Conti L. Shaping the Innate Immune response by dietary glucans: any role in the control of cancer? Cancers (Basel). 2020;12(1):155. doi:10.3390/cancers12010155.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodridge HS, Wolf AJ, Underhill DM. Beta-glucan recognition by the innate immune system. Immunol Rev. 2009;230(1):38–50. doi:10.1111/j.1600-065X.2009.00793.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zou S, Duan B, Xu X. Inhibition of tumor growth by β-glucans through promoting CD4+ T cell immunomodulation and neutrophil-killing in mice. Carbohydr Polym. 2019;213:370–81. doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2019.03.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li B, Cai Y, Qi C, Hansen R, Ding C, Mitchell TC, Yan J. Orally administered particulate beta-glucan modulates tumor-capturing dendritic cells and improves antitumor T-cell responses in cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2010;16(21):5153–64. doi:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-10-0820.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richter J, Kral V, Vetvicka V, Rajnohova DL, Fernandez-Botran R. Effect of β-glucan supplementation on levels of IgM, IgA, IgG and its subclasses IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4 in cancer patients. Journal of Tumor. 2016;4(5–6):469–73. doi:10.17554/j..1819-6187.2016.04.98.
   Google Scholar
• Kirkcaldy RD, King BA, Brooks JT. COVID-19 and postinfection immunity: limited evidence, many remaining questions. JAMA. 2020;323(22):2245–46. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.7869.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petit J, Wiegertjes GF. Long-lived effects of administering β-glucans: indications for trained immunity in fish. Dev Comp Immunol. 2016;64:93–102. doi:10.1016/j.dci.2016.03.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GRAS FDA. [accessed 2020 Nov 12]. https://www.betaglucan.org/fdagras/
   Google Scholar
• Bashir KMI, Choi JS. Clinical and physiological perspectives of β-glucans: the past, present, and future. Int J Mol Sci. 2017;18:1906. doi:10.3390/ijms18091906.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Infusino F, Marazzato M, Mancone M, Fedele F, Mastroianni CM, Severino P, Ceccarelli G, Santinelli L, Cavarretta E, Marullo AG, et al. Diet supplementation, probiotics, and nutraceuticals in SARS-CoV-2 infection: A scoping review. Nutrients. 2020;12:1718. doi:10.3390/nu12061718.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jayachandran M, Chen J, Chung SSM, Xu B. A critical review on the impacts of β-glucans on gut microbiota and human health. J Nutr Biochem. 2018;61:101–110
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Talbott SM, Talbott JA. Baker’s yeast beta-glucan supplement reduces upper respiratory symptoms and improves mood state in stressed women. J Am Coll Nutr. 2012;31:295–300. doi:10.1080/07315724.2012.10720441.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dharsono T, Rudnicka K, Wilhelm M, Schoen C. Effects of yeast (1,3)-(1,6)-beta-glucan on severity of upper respiratory tract infections: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study in healthy subjects. J Am Coll Nutr. 2019;38:40–50. doi:10.1080/07315724.2018.1478339.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuller R, Moore MV, Lewith G, Stuart BL, Ormiston RV, Fisk HL, Noakes PS, Calder PC. Yeast-derived β-1,3/1,6 glucan, upper respiratory tract infection and innate immunity in older adults. Nutrition. 2017;39-40:30–35. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2017.03.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jesenak M, Majtan J, Rennerova Z, Kyselovic J, Banovcin P, Hrubisko M. Immunomodulatory effect of pleuran (β-glucan from Pleurotus ostreatus) in children with recurrent respiratory tract infections. Int Immunopharmacol. 2013;15:395–99. doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2012.11.020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy EJ, Masterson C, Rezoagli E, O’Toole D, Major I, Stack GD, Lynch M, Laffey JG, Rowan NJ. β-Glucan extracts from the same edible shiitake mushroom Lentinus edodes produce differential in-vitro immunomodulatory and pulmonary cytoprotective effects - Implications for coronavirus disease (COVID-19) immunotherapies. Sci Total Environ. 2020;732:139330. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139330.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ikewaki N, Fujii N, Onaka T, Ikewaki S, Inoko H. Immunological actions of Sophy beta-glucan (beta-1,3-1,6 glucan), currently available commercially as a health food supplement. Microbiol Immunol. 2007;51:861–73. doi:10.1111/j.1348-0421.2007.tb03982.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao KS, Suryaprakash V, Senthilkumar R, Preethy S, Katoh S, Ikewaki N, Abraham SJK. Role of immune dysregulation in increased mortality among a specific subset of COVID-19 patients and immune-enhancement strategies for combatting through nutritional supplements. Front Immunol. 2020;11:1548. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2020.01548.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yatawara L, Wickramasinghe S, Nagataki M, Takamoto M, Nomura H, Ikeue Y, Watanabe Y, Agatsuma T. Aureobasidium-derived soluble branched (1,3-1,6) beta-glucan (Sophy beta-glucan) enhances natural killer activity in Leishmania amazonensis-infected mice. Korean J Parasitol. 2009;47:345–51. doi:10.3347/kjp.2009.47.4.345.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miyamoto M. Effect of oral intake of black yeast beta-glucan on NK activity in the elderly and patients with cancer. Abstract presented at the 29th Annual Meeting of the Japanese Society of Venous and Enteral Nutrition. February 27-28, 2014: Pacifico Yokohama, Japan.
   Google Scholar
• Dedeepiya VD, Sivaraman G, Venkatesh AP, Preethy S, Abraham SJ. Potential effects of nichi glucan as a food supplement for diabetes mellitus and hyperlipidemia: preliminary findings from the study on three patients from India. Case Rep Med. 2012;2012:895370. doi:10.1155/2012/895370.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ganesh JS, Rao YY, Ravikumar R, Jayakrishnan GA, Iwasaki M, Preethy S, Abraham SJ. Beneficial effects of black yeast derived 1-3, 1-6 beta glucan-nichi glucan in a dyslipidemic individual of Indian origin–a case report. J Diet Suppl. 2014;11:1–6. doi:10.3109/19390211.2013.859211.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ikewaki N, Iwasaki M, Abraham S. Biological response modifier glucan through balancing of blood glucose may have a prophylactic potential in COVID-19 patients. J Diabetes Metab Disord. 2020. doi:10.1007/s40200-020-00664-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ikewaki N, Rao KS, Archibold AD, Iwasaki M, Senthilkumar R, Preethy S, Katoh S, Abraham S. Coagulopathy associated with COVID-19 – perspectives & preventive strategies using a biological response modifier glucan. Thromb J. 2020. doi:10.1186/s12959-020-00239-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pasetti MF, Simon JK, Sztein MB, Levine MM. Immunology of gut mucosal vaccines. Immunol Rev. 2011;239:125–48. doi:10.1111/j.1600-065X.2010.00970.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Criscuolo E, Caputo V, Diotti RA, Sautto GA, Kirchenbaum GA, Clementi N. Alternative methods of vaccine delivery: an overview of edible and intradermal vaccines. J Immunol Res. 2019;2019:8303648. doi:10.1155/2019/8303648.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vetvicka V, Vannucci L, Sima P. β-glucan as a new tool in vaccine development. Scand J Immunol. 2020;91:e12833. doi:10.1111/sji.12833.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reticuloendothelial system. In: Moreland LW, editor. Rheumatology and immunology therapy. Berlin (Heidelberg): Springer; 2004. Online ISBN: 978-3-540-29662-1 doi:10.1007/3-540-29662-X_2332
   Google Scholar
• Le T, Le T, Doan TH, Quyen D, Le KX, Pham V, Nagataki M, Nomura H, Ikeue Y, Watanabe Y, et al. The adjuvant effect of Sophy β-glucan to the antibody response in poultry immunized by the avian influenza A H5N1 and H5N2 vaccines. J Microbiol Biotechnol. 2011;21:405–11. doi:10.4014/jmb.1011.11024.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stier H, Ebbeskotte V, Gruenwald J. Immune-modulatory effects of dietary yeast beta-1,3/1,6-D-glucan. Nutr J. 2014;13:38. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-13-38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar