Prevalence of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Depression Among Internally Displaced Persons in Mogadishu-Somalia

Figures & data

Table 1 Socio-Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents

Variable	Category	Frequency (N=401)	Percentage (%)
Sex	Man	65	16.3
	Woman	334	83.3
	No response	2
Age	18–25 Years	94	23.6
	26–35 Years	150	37.6
	36–60 Years	129	32.3
	>60 Years	26	6.5
	No response	2
Marital status	Single	22	5.5
	Married	277	69.1
	Separated	8	2.0
	Divorced	50	12.5
	Widowed	44	11.0
Educational level	None	260	64.8
	Qur’anic	97	24.2
	Primary	34	8.5
	Secondary	8	2.0
	Tertiary	2	0.5
Employment status	Employed	129	32.2
	Unemployed	268	66.8
	Student	4	1.0
Presence of family history of psychiatric illness	Yes	101	25.3
	No	299	74.8
	No response	1
Number of displacements	Once	78	19.5
	Twice	98	24.5
	Three times	105	26.3
	More than three times	119	29.8
	No response	1
Age of first displacement	<18 years	150	37.4
	19–35 years	170	42.4
	>35 years	81	20.2
Duration of displacement	<1 year	40	10.0
	1–3 years	93	23.3
	>3 years	267	66.8
	No response	1

Table 2 Nature of Exposure to Traumatic Events

Trauma Events	Frequency (N = 401)	Percentage (%)
1. Lack of food or water	320	80.2
2. Ill health without access to medical care	318	79.9
3. Lack of shelter	311	77.9
4. Combat situation (eg, shelling and grenade attacks)	221	55.5
5. Serious physical injury of family member or friend due to combat situation or landmine	199	50.4
6. Witness beatings to head or body	191	49.0
7. Forced evacuation under dangerous conditions	182	46.0
8. Witness torture	179	45.4
9. Extortion or robbery	165	41.6
10. Disappearance or kidnapping of other family member or friend	140	35.3
11. Murder, or death due to violence, of other family member or friend	137	34.3
12. Confiscation or destruction of personal property	121	31.1
13. Beating to the body	114	28.6
14. Witness killing/murder	106	27.0
15. Serious physical injury from combat situation or landmine	107	26.8
16. Other forced separation from family members	107	26.8
17. Knifing or axing	102	25.6
18. Forced to hide	98	24.6
19. Imprisonment	93	23.4
20. Brainwashing	91	22.9
21. Another situation that was very frightening or in which you felt your life was in danger.	85	21.6
22. Forced to physically harm family member, or friend	84	21.2
23. Kidnapped	81	20.5
24. Forced labor (like animal or slave)	77	19.5
25. Witness rape or sexual abuse	70	17.9
26. Forced to physically harm someone who is not family or friend	71	17.8
27. Torture, ie, while in captivity you received deliberate and systematic infliction of physical or mental suffering	61	15.3
28. Murder, or death due to violence, of child	59	14.8
29. Enforced isolation from others	58	14.6
30. Murder, or death due to violence, of spouse	49	12.3
31. Someone was forced to betray you and place you at risk of death or injury	46	11.5
32. Disappearance or kidnapping of child	44	11.1
33. Disappearance or kidnapping of spouse	41	10.3
34. Forced to destroy someone else’s property or possessions	36	9.0
35. Rape	35	8.9
36. Prevented from burying someone	35	8.8
37. Forced to find and bury bodies	32	8.1
38. Other types of sexual abuse or sexual humiliation	30	7.7
39. Forced to betray family member, or friend placing them at risk of death or injury	30	7.5
40. Forced to betray someone who is not family or friend placing them at risk of death or injury	28	7.0
41. Forced to desecrate or destroy the bodies or graves of deceased persons	26	6.5

Table 3 Multivariate Analysis of Demographic Variables, Number of Trauma Events, and Displacement Variables Associated with PTSD

Variable	Category	At Risk of PTSD		aOR (95% C.I)	p-value
		No	Yes
Employment status	Employed	98 (76.0%)	31 (24.0%)	Ref.
	Unemployed	174 (64.0%)	98 (36.0%)	1.79 (1.06–3.04)	0.030
Family history of psychiatric illness	Yes	58 (57.4%)	43 (42.6%)	1.13 (0.66–1.94)	0.653
	No	213 (71.2%)	86 (28.8%)	Ref.
Number of displacements	Once	69 (88.5%)	9 (11.5%)	Ref.
	Twice	60 (61.2%)	38 (38.8%)	3.21 (1.35–7.63)	0.008
	Three times	66 (62.9%)	39 (37.1%)	2.83 (1.20–6.67)	0.017
	More than three times	76 (63.9%)	43 (36.1%)	3.15 (1.35–7.33)	0.008
Age of first displacement	<18 years	109 (72.7%)	41 (27.3%)	1.29 (0.64–2.61)	0.483
	19–35 years	100 (58.8%)	70 (41.2%)	2.56 (1.31–5.01)	0.006
	>35 years	63 (77.8%)	18 (22.2%)	Ref.
Duration of displacement	<1 year	36 (90.0%)	4 (10.0%)	Ref.
	1–3 years	61 (65.6%)	32 (34.4%)	2.25 (0.67–7.54)	0.187
	>3 years	174 (65.2%)	93 (34.8%)	2.10 (0.66–6.72)	0.210
Number of traumatic events	Mean (SD)	9.6 (5.8)	14 (8.0)	1.09 (1.05–1.13)	<0.001

Abbreviations: aOR, adjusted odd ratio; CI, confidence interval.

Table 4 Multivariate Analysis of Demographic Variables, Cumulative Trauma, and Displacement Variables Associated with Depression

Variable	Category	At Risk of Depression		aOR (95% CI)	p-value
		No	Yes
Age	18–25 years	47 (50.0%)	47 (50.0%)	Ref.
	26–35 years	62 (41.3%)	88 (58.7%)	1.13 (0.60–2.13)	0.699
	≥36 years	53 (34.2%)	102 (65.8%)	1.25 (0.61–2.59)	0.541
Marital status	Single	14 (63.6%)	8 (36.4%)	Ref.
	Married	115 (41.5%)	162 (58.5%)	1.61 (0.59–4.40)	0.357
	Divorced/Separated	19 (32.8%)	39 (67.2%)	2.23 (0.71–6.97)	0.168
	Widowed	15 (34.1%)	29 (65.9%)	1.48 (0.44–4.97)	0.529
Employment status	Employed	61 (47.3%)	68 (52.7%)	Ref.
	Unemployed	102 (37.5%)	170 (62.5%)	1.72 (1.07–2.77)	0.026
Family history of psychiatric illness	Yes	31 (30.7%)	70 (69.3%)	1.34 (0.79–2.27)	0.283
	No	131 (43.8%)	168 (56.2%)	Ref.
Number of displacements	Once	34 (43.6%)	44 (56.4%)	Ref.
	Twice	51 (52.0%)	47 (48.0%)	0.61 (0.32–1.17)	0.138
	Three times	42 (40.0%)	63 (60.0%)	0.94 (0.50–1.78)	0.860
	More than three times	36 (30.3%)	83 (69.7%)	1.52 (0.80–2.87)	0.200
Age of first displacement	<18 years	70 (46.7%)	80 (53.3%)	Ref.
	19–35 years	69 (40.6%)	101 (59.4%)	1.17 (0.68–2.01)	0.573
	>35 years	24 (29.6%)	57 (70.4%)	1.68 (0.77–3.64)	0.190
Cumulative traumatic events	0–4	34 (54.0%)	29 (46.0%)	Ref.
	5–9	63 (47.4%)	70 (52.6%)	1.52 (0.79–2.91)	0.213
	10–14	37 (41.1%)	53 (58.9%)	1.76 (0.88–3.54)	0.111
	15–19	17 (26.2%)	48 (73.8%)	3.53 (1.60–7.79)	0.002
	≥20	12 (24.0%)	38 (76.0%)	3.29 (1.36–7.97)	0.008

Abbreviations: aOR, adjusted odd ratio; CI, confidence interval.