Gastroretentive systems – a proposed strategy to modulate anthocyanin release and absorption for the management of diabetes

Figures & data

Table 1. Summary of anti-diabetic activities promoted by ACN from different sources.

Source	Model	Activity	Reference
In vitro
Blueberry (fruit)	β cells	↑ proliferation	Martineau et al. (2006)
Cornus fruit (extract)	β cells	↑ insulin secretion	Jayaprakasam et al. (2005)
Maqui berry	Myotubes	↑ glucose uptake	Rojo et al. (2012)
		Insulin-sensitizing effect
Maqui berry	H4IIE cells	↓ glucose production	Rojo et al. (2012)
		Insulin-sensitizing effect
In vivo
Bilberry (powder)	Rat, alloxan-induced diabetes	↓ blood glucose levels	Asgary et al. (2016)
		↑ serum insulin levels
Black rice (extract)	Rat, fructose diet	Improved glucose intolerance	Guo et al. (2007)
		No effect on hyperinsulinemia
Cornelian cherry (purified ACNs)	Mice C57BL/6, high fat diet	↓ weight gain independent of food intake	Jayaprakasam et al. (2006)
		↑ insulin levels
		Improved glucose tolerance
		Protection of islets
Cyanidin 3-glucoside	Mice KK-A^y	↓ blood glucose	Sasaki et al. (2007)
		Improved insulin sensitivity
Gamazumi (extract)	Rat, streptozotocin-induced diabetes	↓ blood glucose levels	Iwai et al. (2004)
		↓ hemoglobin A1
Haskap berry	SD/SPF rats, high fat diet	↓ postprandial blood glucose	Takahashi et al. (2014)
Lowbush blueberry  (ACN-rich formulation)	Mice C57BL/6J	↓ blood glucose levels	Grace et al. (2009)
Maqui berry	Rat, diabetic	↓ blood glucose and glucose tolerance	Rojo et al. (2012)
Purple corn	Mice, high fat diet	Hyperglycaemia and hyperinsulinemia normalized by high fat diet	Tsuda et al. (2003)
Purple sweet potato (extract)	Sprague-Dawley rat	↓ postprandial glycaemic response and rise of blood glucose levels	Matsui et al. (2002)
Purple-fleshed potato	Rat, streptozotocin-induced diabetes	↓ blood glucose levels	Choi et al. (2013)
		↓ serum insulin levels
Red wine (Cabernet)	Rat, streptozotocin-induced diabetes	↓ blood and urine glucose, Inhibition of body mass loss	Jankowski et al. (2000)
		↓ lipid peroxidation
Tart cherry	Rat, insulin resistance	↓ blood glucose, cholesterol, and insulin	Seymour et al. (2008)
Clinical
Cranberry (juice concentrate powder)	T2D patients	No differences were found between placebo and treatment group	Chambers & Camire (2003)
Muscadine grape (wine)	T2D patients	↓ blood glucose, insulin	Banini et al. (2006)
		Glycaemic control
Sour cherry (concentrated juice)	T2D patients	↓ body weight, hemoglobin A1c	Ataie-Jafari et al. (2008)

Figure 1. Overview of different GRS. GRS applicable for food applications are highlighted with double lines. The other approaches (dotted lines) will not be discussed in this review as they may involve the use of non-GRAS solvents or polymers and be less suitable for the food industry.

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