Teachers’ perceptions of technical affordances in early visual arts education

ABSTRACT

This study aimed at exploring kindergarten teachers’ perceptions and usage of digital devices in their classrooms. A multiple case study (n = 4) was conducted to investigate how in-service experienced (n = 22) and novice (n = 24) kindergarten teachers interpreted the functional significance of digital devices, including the needs and challenges faced when applying digital devices in visual arts activities in their classrooms. A non-randomised convenience sampling strategy was used to recruit four local kindergartens in Hong Kong, whose teachers were invited to participate in focus group interviews. In total, 540 min of interview data were collected. We examined the in-service teachers’ perceptions of the affordances of digital devices in terms of (1) transparency, (2) challenge and (3) accessibility. Based on the teachers’ responses in the interviews, the findings indicated issues related to the use of digital devices in terms of these three areas here. The informants shared how their understandings of film language limited their intentions and usage patterns (including frequency of use) with respect to digital videos. Nevertheless, they admitted that digital videos were important tools for facilitating children’s learning and communication with their parents. This study reflects the current situation of technology education in Hong Kong, including how teacher educators perceive the usage and roles of digital videos in early arts education.

KEYWORDS:

• Digital devices
• technological affordances
• early visual arts education

Introduction

New technologies are bringing fundamental changes to the lives of twenty-first-century children, who are the most frequent users of emerging digital experiences (OECD 2016). Nevertheless, the position of digital technology in early childhood has been controversial in recent decades. While new media has often been enthusiastically embraced (e.g. Galloway 2009), other scholars have been more critical, suggesting that new technologies should not have a place in children’s learning (e.g. House 2012). Miller (2005) claimed that most of these technologies are developmentally inappropriate and exposing children to unnecessary content and overwhelming information. Some researchers have suggested that using digital technology at a young age may negatively affect children’s brain development and their social and cultural competences (Bolstad 2004). The American Academy of Pediatrics (2016) discouraged any type and amount of screen time for toddlers under two years of age and recommended no more than two hours of total screen time each day for children older than two years. Christakis and Garrison (2009) further argued that what educators should consider is whether children use digital technologies effectively and appropriately, although the amount of time children spend with technology and media is also critical. The digital literacy of young children has been influenced by the everyday digital technologies that have become increasingly affordable, portable and efficient over the past decade (Lynch and Redpath 2014). Children grow up in their learning environments together with new and powerful cultural tools (Kucirkova 2013). Therefore, the shift in new media literacies and the need for digital literacy are influencing children’s learning experiences. For instance, newer technologies, such as mobile computing and multitouch screens, have changed the ways in which children interact with images, sounds and ideas (Buckleitner 2011).

Many kindergarten teachers have found it challenging to integrate digital technology into their teaching due to several constraints, including delivering a paper-based curriculum, lacking time and guidance to explore the available digital resources and having low confidence in using digital devices effectively in the classroom (Carrington 2005; Lankshear et al. 1996; Turbill 2001). Meanwhile, technological innovation keeps moving forward, with the widespread use of mobile touch-screen devices (Flewitt, Messer, and Kucirkova 2015). New digital devices have transformed the ways in which kindergarten teachers use materials in the classroom with children and how teacher education and professional development are delivered. The teacher’s digital literacy is essential in selecting, using, integrating and evaluating technology and interactive media. Kindergarten teachers need available, affordable and accessible professional development opportunities that provide in-depth, hands-on technology training, continuous support and access to the latest digital devices and technology knowledge (Donohue and Schomburg 2017).

Several studies in early childhood education have supported children’s use of tablets for a range of creative activities, such as digital book creation (Flewitt, Messer, and Kucirkova 2015), filmmaking, music creation and photography (Dezuanni et al. 2015). Moreover, the interactive design of cameras and video recorders allows children to conduct digital play through producing artistic, creative and constructive content, such as digital drawing, photos and movies (Stephen and Plowman 2014). However, in Hong Kong, early visual arts education is usually restricted to traditional fine arts elements. Hong Kong studies have found that kindergarten teachers lack competence in delivering quality visual arts teaching to young children (Leung 2018). Digital art has become an important genre in visual arts for young children, but it has not been included in the early childhood curriculum in Hong Kong (Curriculum Development Council 2017). Meanwhile, no local study has studied how early childhood education teachers perceive the role of digital devices in early visual arts education in Hong Kong. Therefore, this study aimed to explore Hong Kong teachers’ perceptions of digital devices in visual arts teaching in kindergarten classrooms, including the needs and challenges experienced when using digital devices in visual arts activities in their classrooms. The findings have the potential to improve how digital arts are introduced in early childhood settings, expanding the ways in which visual arts are perceived and taught. Ultimately, the study is expected to enrich the quality of kindergarten teachers’ digital arts teaching and inform future curriculum reform in early childhood education.

Teachers’ perceptions of the uses of technology

Kindergarten teachers play an important role in organising the classroom (Manassakis 2020) for the use of digital technologies to prepare children to have meaningful classroom learning experiences (Brown and Englehart 2019). They make decisions about digital technologies and take actions to ensure the quality of digital technologies in their classrooms (Schriever 2021). Indeed, kindergarten teachers’ perceptions affect how and how much digital play is used. Even though kindergarten teachers may be digitally competent in their personal lives, dominant ideologies regarding play-based pedagogies can prevent the integration of digital devices in their teaching (Palaiologou 2016). Teachers successfully address issues of equity and access by providing opportunities for all children to participate and learn when they appropriately integrate technology and interactive media into their teaching. Those who lack technology skills and digital literacy are at risk of using technology with young children inappropriately, which may negatively affect their learning and development (NAEYC and the Fred Rogers Center 2012).

Although integrating technology into children’s play and learning has been supported by some scholars internationally, current research on kindergarten teachers suggests wide disparities in perceptions and use of technology in early childhood settings around the world (Danniels, Pyle, and DeLuca 2020; Hu and Yelland 2019). Research has studied teachers’ perceptions, competences and opportunities in relation to integrating digital devices into a play-based curriculum, finding that teachers in primary and secondary education performed better at integrating digital devices in teaching than teachers in early childhood education (Kerckaert, Vanderlinde, and van Braak 2015; Nikolopoulou and Gialamas 2015). Sandberg and Samuelsson (2003) argued that teachers may perceive digital devices as a threat to an idealised view of early childhood education. Kindergarten teachers have claimed that they lack the knowledge to integrate digital technology – related activities and need clearer curriculum guidelines and more adequate training (Otterborn, Schönborn, and Hultén 2019).

Previous studies have argued that the effective use of new technology in classrooms depends on the technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) possessed by the teachers concerned (e.g. Koehler and Mishra 2009). Teachers with well-developed TPACK may hold positive attitudes towards a new technology (Hofer and Grandgenett 2012). Leung, Choi, and Yuen (2020) investigated how video arts are utilised in Hong Kong children’s digital play. Their study involved a video-making programme for nine gifted children (aged five to eight years) during a summer workshop. The study found that the teaching assistants coached children differently, depending on their own particular background (some had studied early education, while others had studied media art). The teaching assistants who had not previously received video-making training said that they had difficulties guiding the children to use storyboards to tell their own stories. Although all the teaching assistants were enthusiastic and eager to teach, their lack of digital arts education hindered them from giving guidance on digital moving-image making.

The Hong Kong context

In Hong Kong, in the early years of the new millennium, reforms were introduced to the kindergarten, primary school and secondary school curricula. In March 2017, the committee reviewed the guide to the pre-primary curriculum, which was renamed the Kindergarten Education Curriculum Guide (‘the Guide’). With the goal of achieving whole-person education, the Guide claims that children should develop through five domains: ethics, intellect, physique, social skills and aesthetics. These five developmental goals are achieved through six learning domains: physical fitness and health, language, early childhood mathematics, nature and living, self and society, and arts and creativity (Curriculum Development Council 2017). According to the Guide, the role of the arts and creativity domain is to help children develop sensory abilities, express feelings and unleash creativity. The Guide claims that children’s imagination and creativity can be inspired and nurtured through diversified and interesting activities provided by teachers for creating, presenting and appreciating arts. However, the overall learning environment in Hong Kong is constrained by the sociocultural preference for academic subjects. Art also receives the lowest priority in the teacher education curriculum, and kindergarten teachers have limited training in the teaching of visual arts as an academic discipline. Recent teacher education programmes in Hong Kong have not included digital arts as a training component (Leung 2018).

In the Guide, technology lies within the learning area of nature and living (Curriculum Development Council 2017). The Guide clearly states that the role of information technology is to assist learning and teaching that bring interactive and interesting activities to cater to children’s learning. It claims that teachers can guide children to be aware of technological products and make good use of technology. However, the curriculum provides little guidance on support for developing teachers’ competences in digital technology, including how to utilise technology effectively to provide interactive and interesting activities for children. In 2020–2021, 95.9% of kindergarten teachers received the qualified kindergarten teacher status (Education Bureau 2022). Although all Hong Kong kindergarten teachers have completed their secondary education, most have not received any information technology training since the level of Secondary Three, unless they have specifically chosen a technology-related subject (e.g. Information and Communication Technology or Technology and Living) as one of their elective subjects for the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education Examination. Sadly, even most of the bachelor’s degree programmes in early childhood education do not provide their student teachers with a single module on technological applications. It is therefore questionable whether kindergarten teachers possess the necessary knowledge and skills to develop digital arts as a new area in visual arts education.

In early childhood education, previous studies have questioned whether digital devices have a place in kindergartens at all (Yelland 2011), and studies have also doubted the competences of kindergarten teachers in integrating digital media into their practice (Parette and Blum 2013). Clearly, the role of digital devices in early childhood settings has not yet been fully investigated. In the context of Hong Kong, Cheng and Hu (2013) explored the potential of tablet computers in early childhood learning activities. However, only a few studies have focused on teachers’ perceptions of early visual arts in Hong Kong, and none of the local studies in Hong Kong have considered the applications of digital devices to visual arts education in kindergartens.

Due to the pandemic outbreak, kindergartens in Hong Kong have been closed for face-to-face instruction since February 2020. Many parents have chosen to withdraw their children from kindergarten learning. Some kindergartens have closed down due to the tremendous drop in enrolment. In facing the challenges of the pandemic, the face-to-face mode of teaching has changed to the online mode of teaching, and the use of technology and digital devices in kindergarten visual arts education has become unavoidable. This study, which was conducted in August 2021, aimed at exploring kindergarten teachers’ perceptions and usage of digital devices in their classrooms. The following research questions guided this study:

1. What were the teachers’ perceptions, usage patterns and intentions regarding digital devices in visual arts teaching in kindergarten classrooms?

2. How did the kindergarten teachers perceive the functional significance of digital devices in early visual arts education?

3. What were the teachers’ needs and challenges in using digital devices in visual arts activities in their classrooms?

Theoretical framework: technological affordances

This study aimed to investigate how kindergarten teachers perceived the affordances of different digital devices in visual arts education for young children’s learning. Gibson’s (1979) theory of affordances states that the physical environment that we live in affords different actions and behaviours. Heft (1988) further expanded on the concept of affordances to include perceptual affordances (visual perceptions of the substances, properties and structures of materials in relation to actions) and social – cultural affordances (interpretations of the social meanings of affordances), which is helpful in the analysis of the context of human–environment dynamics. Norman (2013) argued that the affordances of an environment as perceived by an actor depend not only on the physical capabilities of the actor but also on their intentions, plans, values, beliefs and previous experiences. In short, the affordances of any object are affected by (1) the properties of the object, (2) human intentions and (3) human abilities (Fayard and Weeks 2014). According to Carr (2000), the notion of affordance is an advantageous way to investigate the relationship between learners and the environment. It refers to the perceived and actual properties of an object or artefact—those properties that determine how it may possibly be used (Norman 1988, 9). Thus, it is a useful concept for understanding how a technology facilitates or hinders learning of various kinds (Roth, Woszczyna, and Smith 1996, 997).

Malone and Lepper (1987) studied the attributes of computer games that increase intrinsic motivation, including factors such as control of the activity, interactivity, immediate results, graded goals, conflict and moderate uncertainty. Norman (2013) claimed that knowledge of affordances is critical in a user-centred approach to designing everyday objects that provide users with relevant, perceptible and accessible affordances. Scholars have also argued that there is a distinction between the features of an artefact and the affordances of the artefact (Evans et al. 2017; Pols 2012). In addition, Carr (2000) identified three technological affordance factors of tools and materials in relation to children’s learning: (1) transparency, (2) challenge and (3) accessibility. Transparency refers to the ability of the tool’s concepts and inner workings to be understood by the learner (Carr 2000; Lave and Wenger 1991, 102). Challenge implies the ability of a tool to increase children’s learning and usage options (Carr 2000). Accessibility refers to the ability of a tool to increase the amount and type of social participation (Carr 2000; Lave and Wenger 1991).

Moreover, Smith et al. (2016) maintained that ‘the concept provides a powerful tool for environment–behaviour analysis and has been embraced by a group of environmental design researchers and environmental psychologists, several of them researching children’s environments’ (553). The concept of affordances has been further applied to examine the relationships between environments and various aspects of children’s development and learning, including brain function (Agyei, van der Weel, and van der Meer 2016), sociability (Kyttä 2002), play activities (Fjørtoft 2004), physical activities (Smith et al. 2016) and risky play behaviours (Little and Sweller 2014).

The concept of affordances has continued to be widely used in recent education research. Dong and Mertala (2021) examined Chinese preservice early childhood teachers’ perceptions of ICT and its affordances through online interviews, highlighting the importance of sociocultural contexts in shaping preservice teachers’ perceptions of technology and technology use. Walan and Enochsson (2022) examined the affordances and challenges of integrating digital tools in teaching early sciences, finding that kindergarten teachers perceived digital tools as good teaching aids for delivering knowledge and searching for information about sciences. Applying these theories and concepts related to affordances, this study aimed to investigate Hong Kong kindergarten teachers’ perceptions of the capabilities of digital devices and their intentions regarding their use in the classroom environment.

Methodology

A multiple case study (n = 4) was conducted to investigate how in-service kindergarten teachers (n = 46; 22 experienced teachers and 24 novice teachers) interpreted the functional significance of digital videos and their needs and challenges in applying digital videos in visual arts activities in their classrooms. During the pandemic, digital teaching was optional for all kindergartens in Hong Kong. Therefore, we used a non-randomised convenience sampling strategy (Johnson and Christensen 2010) to recruit four local kindergartens in Hong Kong that conducted digital teaching for children in the form of real-time Zoom online video. Teachers from these kindergartens were invited to participate in focus group interviews. These four local kindergartens had an even proportion of experienced (five teaching years or above) and novice (from zero to five teaching years) teachers. The categorisation of teaching experiences was based on previous studies of early childhood teachers (e.g. Chien and Hui 2010). We examined the in-service teachers’ perceptions of the affordances of digital videos based on Carr’s (2000) dimensions of affordances.

According to Patton (2002), a focus group typically has six to 10 people with similar backgrounds who participate in an interview for one to two hours. There were eight in-service teachers in our focus groups. Each interview lasted 90, and 540 min of interview verbal data were collected. The interview protocol included the following aspects based on Carr’s (2000) concepts relating to technological affordances: (1) Transparency: The ability of the tool’s concepts and inner workings to be understood by the learner (e.g. what kinds of functions were the teachers aware of when using a tablet, video recorder or camera? How can a camera be used in a children’s visual arts class?); (2) Challenge: The ability of the tool to increase children’s learning and usage options (e.g. if they were being asked to teach children to make a short video, what and how would the teachers prepare for this video-making class? How can a video-making class impact and enhance learning in a children’s class?); and (3) Accessibility: The ability of the tool to increase the amount and type of social participation (e.g. to what extent did the teachers think that a camera could help facilitate the social participation of children?). Two other groups of questions were designed to understand the in-service teachers’ needs and challenges in applying these digital devices to visual arts activities: (1) Difficulties in applying these digital devices in visual arts teaching (e.g. why were the teachers hesitant about using digital devices in visual arts teaching?); and (2) Needs and suggestions for teacher training in digital arts (e.g. what were the teachers’ ideas about how teacher training courses could better help them improve their knowledge and pedagogical skills related to digital arts?).

Attride-Stirling (2001) argued that the traditional tools used for analysing qualitative sources are neither systematic nor sophisticated. She recommended using the techniques of thematic network analysis, suggesting a six-step process whereby data could be transcribed, coded and analysed by qualitative researchers. First, the transcribed material should be coded. Then, themes should be identified to construct thematic networks, followed by the further description and exploration of these thematic networks. In the final stages, the thematic networks should be summarised and interpreted as patterns (Figure 1). Leung (2020) conducted a thematic network analysis to code data from semi-structured interviews to investigate how kindergarten teachers in Hong Kong explained their belief–practice gap.

Figure 1. Six steps of using thematic network analysis (Attride-Stirling 2001)

Based on Attride-Stirling's steps, the codes then were identified and organised into themes of different levels. The coding scheme was generated from the theoretical framework of technical affordances (Carr 2000). Finally, these themes were reduced to several global themes, which were then presented as a pattern of thematic networks, as suggested by Attride-Stirling (2001).

The trustworthiness (Lincoln and Guba 1985) and credibility (Shenton 2004) of this study were ensured in the following ways: (1) following a well-established research method (Attride-Stirling 2001) ensured a systematic qualitative study; (2) the informants were selected from kindergartens in Hong Kong through a non-randomised convenience sampling strategy (Johnson and Christensen 2010), as the participants conducted digital teaching in their classrooms; (3) the researcher interviewed all the participants by herself to establish rapport in the dialogues and help ensure their honesty in the interviews; and (4) the researcher had a similar frontline background as a kindergarten teacher to the informants. The credibility of the researcher is very important in qualitative studies, as researchers are the major instrument of the data collection and analysis (Patton 2002). All the participants received a letter of notification that set out the purposes of the research project and the procedures to be followed, explained issues relating to confidentiality, anonymity and storage of data, and highlighted the participants’ right to withdraw from the study at any time for any reason and without prejudice. The participants’ consent was sought on this basis. Research ethics were strictly observed with respect to the collection, management and storage of the data collected in this project.

Findings and discussion

Previous literature has argued that digital devices such as tablet computers, cameras and video recorders may allow children to create more creative content, such as drawings, photos and movies (Plowman 2015). These digital devices may help children extend their artistic experience from fine arts to media arts. Based on the concepts relating to technical affordances (Carr 2000), the findings indicated both experienced and novice kindergarten teachers’ perceptions regarding the transparency, accessibility and challenge of video recorders, cameras and tablets.

Transparency

Transparency explains the ability of a tool’s concept and inner workings to be understood (Carr 2000). The teachers were able to use digital video recorders to record moving images for demonstration purposes. However, this form of usage was insufficient for facilitating children’s artistic expression and creativity. The thematic analysis explained the various functions of digital video for the in-service teachers, including for demonstration purposes, show-and-tell and even the collection of learning evidence. Digital video could in a sense be integrated into the theme-based curriculum but not into the visual arts curriculum (Figure 2). The teachers reported that they were worried that children might not be able to operate the digital video camera. They also assumed that children could only press the record button. Since the teachers had limited knowledge of the functional significance of digital video cameras, they mainly used the recording function to perform these kinds of teaching activities; however, the digital video cameras were not used for visual arts activities. However, as shown by Leung, Choi, and Yuen (2020), digital video cameras can perform cinematic language (e.g. zoom-in and long-take), as well as encouraging technical skills (e.g. the ways of operating a video camera) and narrative skills (e.g. storyboard drawing).

Figure 2. Thematic analysis of transparency in technical affordances

Some informants shared their views on how digital video could facilitate children’s daily life learning and assessment electronically:

We hoped that digital could become an optional art form. For example, for Father’s Day, we don’t always have to make a paper card. So, we invite children to record a video message to Daddy, which can also be an option. (Teacher 16; an experienced teacher)

I think the children will understand better by watching video clips. Presentation of the growth of plants can be speeded up with a time-lapse video. The teacher can explain to children how long it usually takes for a seed to grow into an adult plant. For example, if it takes a month, explain to children the concept of month. Video contains both visuals and sound, which will be more engaging than pictures or photos. (Teacher 7; a novice teacher)

Leung (2014) introduced photographic art into kindergarten classrooms, with children using digital cameras to explore their school and express their thoughts. During the interviews for the current study, the researchers explored the teachers’ perceptions of the affordances of digital cameras in teaching children visual arts. The teachers held relatively positive beliefs regarding the application of digital cameras in classrooms. Apparently, they had a better ability to understand how digital cameras worked in their curriculum:

I think photography can be mixed with visual art. For example, the topic is about the natural environment, and children can be invited to take pictures of their favourite pictures outside the kindergarten. In this way, children can record the pictures they see and improve their observation, because they spontaneously record the scene in front of them and then go back to school to draw pictures based on the objects. (Teacher 36; an experienced teacher)

We took the children to the garden to see the flowers and then let the children take pictures with the camera. I remember that the theme of teaching at that time was trees, and then the teacher would use the camera to record the patterns of the trunk and then let the children observe. I think we can teach the children how to use the camera to record the objects observed in front of them and the things they like. (Teacher 24; a novice teacher)

The rapid entry of new educational tools, such as digital tablets, into preschool environments places both novel and urgent demands on teachers to meaningfully support children’s learning activities while also satisfying curriculum mandates and expectations (Neumann and Neumann 2014; Yelland and Masters 2007). While most of the experienced Hong Kong teachers did not have experience in using these devices, the novice teachers, who were themselves active users of tablets, did have some thoughts about using tablets for teaching young children:

I have never tried using tablets as assistive tools when doing crafts with children, not even during other learning activities. But I would often borrow my cousins’ tablets for painting. Apps on computers, such as Painter, provide different types of paint and brushes, like wood grains. My cousins are very clever. They know that they don’t have to draw the strokes of trees step by step; there are functions that create the wood grain effects. They even know well about using buttons to create different shapes, such as circles, squares, etc. That’s why they can draw a person without really outlining the pattern by themselves. From the perspective of teaching, I think that it is also possible for children to try and explore these functions. Teachers should provide them with opportunities and freedom to draw – and share their feelings or thoughts about choosing the colours and using lines. (Teacher 11; a novice teacher)

Challenge

Challenge reflects the ability of a tool to increase children’s learning and usage options. The teachers’ abilities to use digital video to enhance children’s artistic learning were poor because they lacked the technical knowledge and skills to integrate this technology into visual arts. Studies to date have indicated that some kindergarten teachers are insecure about how to use digital technologies in kindergartens (Blackwell, Lauricella, and Wartella 2014). Some need to overcome barriers when these technologies are introduced (Edwards 2016), while others question their usefulness (Palaiologou 2016). The teachers shared how their lack of understanding of film language limited their intentions, usage patterns and usage frequency with respect to digital videos. Their responses were coded as ‘accept children using this media to express themselves,’ ‘software and technical training’ (with keywords such as ‘virtual background,’ ‘voiceover,’ ‘subtitles,’ ‘editing’ and ‘shooting’) and ‘lack of knowledge to integrate digital devices and visual arts’ (which involved technical knowledge, skills and attitudes). These findings explained the challenges faced by the teachers attempting to increase children’s digital video usage in visual arts, as they lacked the positive attitude, technical skills, digital literacy, and knowledge necessary for integrating digital video into visual arts. The informants reported that they had barriers in using digital video in arts education because of their negative attitudes and lack of competence in terms of technical knowledge and skills (Figure 3):

We still need guidance from professionals. Even though we can learn a lot from YouTube, this is not specific enough – teachers have to search for it by themselves. If the training was more specific, the teachers could raise questions, and the tutor could provide advice or ideas that allow the teacher to understand more thoroughly. (Teacher 30; a novice teacher)

From an aesthetic perspective, we might need some professionals in IT or creative media. If we want to further develop – more practically use it in the teaching activities – I would prefer those who already had knowledge of arts or paintings. If he/she has the skills and knows about early childhood education at the same time, he/she will be capable of connecting all of these. (Teacher 24; an experienced teacher)

Figure 3. Thematic analysis of challenge in technical affordances

Petersen (2015) suggested that at the preschool level, children’s agency with digital tools (i.e. the active participation and independent activities of children based on their own choices and familiarity with the tools) needs to be carefully considered and integrated accordingly. The informants reported that they lacked professional knowledge to make good judgements about sourcing the equipment and making the cameras perform well in their classrooms:

I think we are also supposed to know about the hardware and software, to judge how to purchase a suitable camera under a limited budget, how to control the lighting. It is impossible for us to use the camera like those television stations, so we need to know which camera will already be good enough for daily usage in kindergarten. (Teacher 17; an experienced teacher)

Digital camera is going to be like our eyes in the future. How do you ensure the photos are well captured? Students need to be taught some photographic skills. Like, there will be a preview box found on the camera – to take pictures. You place the image you want to capture within that preview box. That is a technique. (Teacher 3; a novice teacher)

Some novice teachers shared how they had learnt how to draw digitally through an application called Procreate. However, they shared the challenges of using these kinds of applications to teach children e-drawing:

I think the first thing that needs to be adjusted is the tablet pen, as it does not fit every child. Second is how I, as a teacher, should use the tablet and apps to teach children how to draw. I think that of foremost importance is setting up a theme for teachers to plan, and how the app interface needs to be easier for children to use. The existing apps are not so convenient for children. Although it provides different brushes, it is not quite user-friendly. Teachers need to spend a long time explaining – how to use and how to draw – to children before they are able to create their desired visuals. (Teacher 37; a novice teacher)

Accessibility

Accessibility refers to the ability of a tool to increase the amount and type of social participation. The teachers admitted that digital video cameras are important tools for facilitating children’s learning and communication with parents. The codes for the informants’ responses included ‘paper-and-pencil’, ‘vlog’ and ‘sound effects, sensorial stimulation and audio files etc.’ The issues that emerged from these codes were about teachers’ professional skills, new forms of technology, eco-friendly practices, sensations of digital video for children, etc. The findings suggested that the accessibility of digital video could make it an essential technology to connect teachers’ professional skills, parental communication and children’s learning. The informants shared their views about the possible roles of digital video in future early childhood education (Figure 4):

Because in the future, paper and pen will no longer be the tool for daily records, but a type of video recording will be used instead. In my age, we used to share our diaries in the form of text, such as blogging, but nowadays, people usually share vlogs or instant videos. (Teacher 25; an experienced teacher)

For example, VR is becoming popular nowadays. Some people might criticise why we don’t just go to the zoo to get contact with real animals in real life. Some people might also challenge that it is bad using digital products. But I doubt that! Can you see the great migration in a zoo? Sometimes parents play documentaries to children, and VR is just a modified and more advanced technology to achieve a better context. (Teacher 18; a novice teacher)

Teachers also held positive beliefs about the accessibility of digital cameras, as they believed that photos taken by children are a convenient opportunity for sharing children’s voices and feelings with each other:

Figure 4. Thematic analysis of accessibility in technical affordances

We invite parents to look at the photos captured by their children so that children can have a chance to review what they have done before sending it back to school. We invite children to share and explain their work to us using voice messages. We hope to engage children in the photo-taking process to the largest extent. That’s why even if it’s just a short voice note, we want it to be done by children instead of parents. (Teacher 14; an experienced teacher)

While a teacher’s aims are often focused on the didactic features of a particular software application (app), a learner’s focus might be on the aesthetic or entertainment features of the same resource (Petersen 2015). In this study, a novice teacher shared her ideas on how children can use Procreate to create collaborative e-drawing to increase social participation, based on the technical affordances of tablets:

I do use the tablet in my leisure time. Apart from entertainment, I also use it to paint. I have signed up for an independent Instagram account for my paintings. I usually draw on the tablet, using the app Procreate. I think that it is also suitable for children. This is because the app doesn’t only allow us to draw, but it also creates different patterns. There are also various paints available for selection so that they can complete their drawings with these different tools and paints. The app I mentioned does have many functions; it also provides a more straightforward way to draw. It has a layers function. Teachers can draw some simple pictures or patterns on the bottom layer and let children draw on the top layer by tracking the lines drawn by teachers. Children can add some other patterns besides. Later when the teacher removes the bottom layer, then the children’s work will be presented. Moreover, I think that using a tablet could stimulate interaction between children. For example, when a child finishes a painting, he can send it to another child and let him continue to paint. Then, together, a painting will be completed. (Teacher 40; a novice teacher)

Discussion

In this study, kindergarten teachers explained their perceptions of technical affordances in early visual arts education. In terms of transparency, the teachers were able to use digital video cameras to record moving images for demonstration purposes. Their touch screens and portable features may increase the transparency of digital cameras. However, this level of transparency was insufficient to facilitate children’s artistic expression and creativity since the artistic pedagogies required in video arts involve more than understanding the usage of a digital camera. In terms of challenge, the teachers’ abilities to use digital video to enhance children’s artistic learning were poor because they lacked technical knowledge and skills. They also lacked ways of integrating digital video into visual arts. As has been pointed out, kindergarten teachers have to spend a lot of time designing artefacts that will provide optimum levels of challenge for young children (Carr 2000). Another aspect of challenge is flexibility (Carr 2000), and the physical characteristics of digital cameras may be too rigid for teachers to create opportunities for children’s learning. In terms of accessibility, the teachers were able to use digital video to connect with both children and parents, thus increasing the number and type of communities of practice (Lave and Wenger 1991).

Digital components in arts education

The visual arts have been an area of scholarly discussion in early childhood education for several decades (Bresler 1998). Visual arts such as drawings, paintings, paper cutouts and tactile crafts are the conventional elements of visual arts education in kindergarten classrooms. Today, young children grow up as active digital learners in technologically rich homes, which renders digital play an inevitable experience for young children (Fleer 2013; Plowman 2015). Bautista et al. (2018) claimed that every art form should be introduced to children in a balanced learning schedule, as each form has specific positive effects on children’s development and learning. Digital art is an essential genre of contemporary arts. It belongs not only in the spectrum of fine-art genres but also in the spectrum of visual arts in early childhood education. This study indicated that the teachers held positive beliefs towards digital cameras’ affordances compared with digital recorders and tablets. Photography will therefore be the most accessible entry point and should be integrated into the early visual arts curriculum.

Curriculum revamp regarding the role of digital devices

Otterborn, Schönborn, and Hultén (2019) collected views from preschool teachers about their usage of digital tablets. Their study suggested that clearer and more informative curriculum guidelines for the implementation of tablet technology are required. Dong and Mertala (2021) argued that policy documents in China have not provided specific guidance, examples and support for kindergarten teachers to integrate digital devices into their classrooms, which means that teachers have to make their own judgment about in what form and to what extent they should integrate digital devices in children’s learning (Bolstad 2004). In this respect, Hong Kong is not an exception. Since the application of digital devices is not mentioned in the curriculum guide (Curriculum Development Council 2017), suggestions and recommendations should be given to the Curriculum Development Council of the Education Bureau. The curriculum guide could be revamped by adding the suggested principles and pedagogies for using digital devices to enhance children’s learning experiences.

Technological knowledge in teacher education

We used to have the impression that an experienced teacher is more capable than a novice one. However, in this study, the findings showed that novice teachers provided novel ideas for integrating technology into their classrooms. Moreover, they had more digital experience than the experienced teachers who used to adopt pencil-and-paper communication. Marklund and Dunkels (2016) asserted that preschool teachers need technical support in developing ways to reflect on their practice. Palmér (2015) argued that teachers need to be provided with resources and guidance to design activities that strengthen the potential educational benefits of digital tablets. Therefore, providing teachers with knowledge and skills in using digital devices would be helpful in developing their technological pedagogical content knowledge and encouraging positive attitudes towards new technologies (Hofer and Grandgenett 2012). Fleer (2017; 2020) claimed that digital technologies are part of contemporary practices that give meaning to the objects and actions in children’s digital play, contributing new conditions for children’s development and learning. Indeed, the applications of digital technologies have been developed rapidly, complicating the implementation of teachers’ professional training globally (Brenneman, Lange, and Nayfeld 2019; Wang, Schmidt-Crawford, and Jin 2018). Therefore, teacher education programmes worldwide include technology integration for early childhood curricula (Tondeur et al. 2017).

Conclusion

Previous studies have argued that digital technology use in the early years may harm children’s holistic development (Bolstad 2004). These critiques have mainly been directed at commercial game products that may weaken children’s authentic learning. The findings showed that this may not be the case for constructive digital devices, such as tablets, cameras and video recorders, which can help children produce media artworks creatively through their daily life experiences (Leung, Choi, and Yuen 2020).

The findings of this study ultimately reflect the current situation of digital teaching in some Hong Kong kindergartens during the pandemic, including how teacher educators perceive the usage and roles of digital videos in early arts education. Even though this study is rooted in qualitative data from interview findings, in a future study, extensive observations could be used to investigate the practices of using digital devices in authentic classroom settings. To date, few studies have been conducted on the use of digital technologies in Hong Kong early childhood settings. This study serves as an example for discovering early childhood teachers’ perceptions of the affordances of digital devices in early childhood education. Nobody would suggest that digital teaching could ever effectively replace hands-on teaching. However, what we should do is promote a common goal of ‘increasing children’s digital autonomy and critical thinking for a safe and balanced life’ (Chaudron 2015, 29) and ‘bridge the gap between play and technologies’ (Edwards 2013, 209).

Statement on open data, ethics and conflict of interest

This study’s data cannot be not accessed for ethical reasons (i.e. protecting the identity of the participants). This research was carried out in full compliance with ethical guidelines and approved by the relevant institutional ethics committee. Ethical consent forms were signed by each participant in the present research. There are no potential conflicts of interest in the work reported here.

Authors’ note

The work described in this paper was fully supported by grants from the Research Grants Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China (Project No. CUHK 14617421), and the Direct Grant for Research from the Chinese University of Hong Kong (Project No. CUHK 4058083).

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by Direct Grant for Research (Project No. CUHK 4058083): [Grant Number The Chinese University of Hong Kong]; Research Grants Council, University Grants Committee: [Grant Number 14617421].