Parents education anxiety questionnaire: Validation in Indonesian parents of school-aged children

Abstract

This study aimed to adapt and validate the Parents Education Anxiety Questionnaire (PEAQ) for the Indonesian context. The sample included 222 parents of school-aged children, predominantly mothers (84.7%) and fathers (15.3%). The results indicated that the adapted questionnaire exhibited good reliability, with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .90, ensuring internal consistency. Confirmatory factor analysis supported the fit of both first-order and second-order models, confirming the construct validity. Concurrent validity was demonstrated by moderate correlations between PEAQ and SPANE-Positive and SPANE-Negative. These findings highlight the reliability and validity of the Indonesian version of PEAQ, making it a valuable tool for measuring parents’ education anxiety, a crucial aspect for Asian parents, and its impact on children’s academic performance.

Keywords:

• educational anxiety
• parental anxiety
• measuring instrumen
• reliabiliy
• validity

PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT

This research addresses an increasingly important issue in the realm of education—parental education anxiety. The study highlights the significance of parental involvement in the educational process and explores how anxiety related to children’s education can impact both parents and children. Given the worldwide emphasis on academic achievement, this study’s findings have broad implications beyond the Indonesian context. Understanding parental education anxiety is relevant not only for parents and educators but also for policymakers and anyone interested in the well-being of children. By adapting and validating the Parents Education Anxiety Questionnaire (PEAQ) for the Indonesian context, this research contributes to the development of a valuable tool that can be used globally to assess and address parental education anxiety, ultimately benefiting both parents and children in their educational journeys.

1. Introduction

The education process involves multiple stakeholders, including parents, who play a crucial role in their children’s academic performance. However, parents often experience anxiety associated with their children’s education, characterized by negative emotions such as nervousness, anxiousness, panic, and worry (Chen et al., 2022; Wu et al., 2022). Parental education anxiety is not static and can fluctuate depending on various factors, such as the child’s academic performance, the competitive nature of education, and social transformation and development (Chen et al., 2022; Xu, 2021). Nonetheless, this anxiety can diminish or even dissipate when children are not in educational settings (Xu, 2021). The intricate nature of the education process, encompassing societal, school, family, and student-related factors, introduces uncertainty and contributes to parental anxiety (Qian & Miao, 2021).

The Expectation Value Theory posits that parental expectations can significantly influence children’s academic achievement, as demonstrated by the Pygmalion effect (Boser et al., 2014; Ma et al., 2018). While high parental expectations can potentially yield positive outcomes, some parents set unrealistic expectations without considering educational laws, the unique learning phases of children, and their individual personality characteristics (Dai & Liu, 2020). Such unrealistic expectations may result in children rebelling or displaying behaviors that deviate from parental expectations, ultimately negatively affecting their academic performance and overall development (Sollars, 2021). This misalignment between parental expectations and actual academic performance can lead to a significant discrepancy, causing parents to experience psychological imbalances characterized by heightened frustration, depression, anxiety, and fear concerning their children’s education (Chen et al., 2022). Consequently, parents harboring unrealistic expectations are more susceptible to experiencing parental education anxiety.

Recent research has highlighted the potential negative impact of parents’ education anxiety on their children’s academic performance and psychological condition. This parental anxiety tends to be counterproductive in the educational context, intensifying the pressure placed upon children and ultimately contributing to the onset of academic burnout (Cheng, 2019). These findings align with recent research by Wu et al. (2022), reported that parents’ education anxiety could lead to academic burnout in children, characterized by low achievement, academic alienation, and psychological exhaustion. In addition, parents’ anxiety has been linked to children’s math anxiety, which in turn predicts several educational outcomes, such as math self-efficacy, math behavioral intentions, math attitudes, math GPA, and math devaluing (Casad et al., 2015). Furthermore, Maloney et al. (2015) suggested that parents’ negative emotions expressed during anxious states can serve as a form of punishment for their children, leading to adverse effects on their learning attitudes and achievements. It is also reported that parents who exhibit anxious behaviors may inadvertently impart anxiety to their children (Drake & Ginsburg, 2012). These findings underscore the importance of addressing parents’ education anxiety and its impact on children’s academic experiences and psychological condition (Casad et al., 2015; Drake & Ginsburg, 2012; Maloney et al., 2015). Consequently, it is essential to utilize a reliable measurement tool to assess parents’ education anxiety accurately.

Various scales have been developed to measure parents’ education anxiety, including the Sources of Parental Anxiety in Children’s (SPACEs; Mei et al., 2023), Parents Education Anxiety Questionnaire (PEAQ; Chen et al., 2022), and Parental Anxiety about Children’s Education Questionnaire (PACEQ; Li, 2018). While all three instruments demonstrate satisfactory psychometric properties for assessing parental education anxiety, SPACEs and PACEQ are specifically designed for parents of children in primary and junior high school, while PEAQ is also applicable for parents with children in high school (Chen et al., 2022). Therefore, the PEAQ offers a broader scope in evaluating parental education anxiety across children’s different educational levels, making it a valuable tool for comprehensive assessment in this domain.

Indonesia, situated in Southeast Asia, shares the prevailing cultural emphasis on academic achievement that is common across many Asian countries. Research conducted within the Indonesian context has revealed that students experience significant pressure from their parents to excel academically (Muhid & Mukarromah, 2018; Permatasari et al., 2018). Indonesian parents view academic success as a crucial indicator of their children’s development and future prospects (Yusuf & Kasmi, 2022). Parents in Indonesia proactively engage in supporting and motivating their children to explore their potential, both in academic and non-academic domains (Hasan & Indriani, 2020). Notably, many Indonesian parents enroll their children in private tutoring classes, aiming to reinforce their academic accomplishments (Fatimah et al., 2015; Wijayanti, 2020). These findings are consistent with cross-cultural studies highlighting the higher academic expectations held by Asian parents compared to their Western counterparts (Li & Xie, 2020). Asian parents, including those in Indonesia, often emphasize hard work as a key determinant of academic achievement, in contrast to Western parents who may attribute success to innate abilities (Stevenson et al., 1990).

However, the scarcity of suitable measurement tools to assess parental education anxiety within the Indonesian cultural context is a noteworthy concern. Prior investigations into parental anxiety within educational settings in Indonesia have predominantly relied upon generalized scales such as the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS) (Khayati et al., 2021). These generic instruments may lack the sensitivity required to capture the intricate facets of parent education anxiety specific to the Indonesian culture, which places high values on educational success, as well as in other Asian countries such as Singapore, Japan, China, and Korea (Li & Xie, 2020; Mun & Hertzog, 2019; Tan & Yates, 2011; Wu et al., 2022). Recognizing this, the Parents Education Anxiety Questionnaire (PEAQ) has emerged as a promising instrument due to its strong psychometric properties and adaptability across a diverse range of educational settings (Chen et al., 2022). Therefore, the primary objective of this study is to validate the PEAQ for use in the Indonesian population, providing a reliable and valid tool to assess parent education anxiety within the unique context of Indonesian education and its cultural intricacies. Specifically, our research questions are:

1. Does the Indonesian version of PEAQ demonstrate satisfactory internal consistency?

2. How does the factor structure of the Indonesian version of PEAQ compare to the factor structure of the original version of PEAQ?

3. To what extent do the Indonesian version of PEAQ scores exhibit positive correlations with negative experiences and negative correlations with positive experiences?

In this study, we propose several hypotheses to answer the research questions at hand. First, we hypothesize that the Indonesian adaptation of the Parents Education Anxiety Questionnaire (PEAQ) will demonstrate satisfactory internal consistency. Second, our hypothesis suggests that the factor structure of the Indonesian version of PEAQ will closely align with the original six-factor model established in previous research. Lastly, we anticipate that the scores obtained from the Indonesian version of PEAQ will exhibit positive correlations with negative experiences while displaying negative correlations with positive experiences.

2. Method

2.1. Validation process

The process of validating the Parents Education Anxiety Questionnaire (PEAQ; Chen et al., 2022) for use in Indonesian population followed the six stages recommended by the International Test Commission (ITC, 2017). These stages encompass pre-conditioning, test development, confirmation, administration, score scaling and interpretation, and documentation.

Firstly, permission was obtained from the original author to adapt the instrument, and a review of the constructs and factors of parents’ education anxiety was conducted during the Pre-condition stage. Secondly, the Test Development stage involved forward and backward translation of the questionnaire, and two experts reviewed the items to calculate the Content Validity Index (CVI). Each expert provided a score on a 5-point Likert scale for relevance, importance, and clarity of the items. Additionally, cognitive interviews were conducted with parents to assess item clarity, participants’ comprehension of the intended meaning, and considerations when responding. The participants’ responses were coded to analyze the results of the cognitive interviews qualitatively. In the Confirmation stage, psychometric properties were analyzed, including reliability assessment, construct validity using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), and concurrent validity with the Scale of Positive and Negative Experience (SPANE). The Administration stage involved administering the adapted questionnaire to a sample of Indonesian parents. Subsequently, in the Score Scales and Interpretation stage, scores were scaled and interpreted based on the analysis of psychometric properties. Finally, the Documentation stage involved documenting the adaptation process to facilitate future research and the use of the adapted questionnaire in Indonesia.

2.2. Participants

The present study targeted parents in Indonesia with children of school age, including elementary, junior, and high school levels. A total of 222 participants were recruited for the study through social media platforms. The sample consisted of 188 mothers, accounting for 84.7% of the participants, and 34 fathers, representing 15.3% of the participants. Participants’ ages ranged from 27 to 55 years, with an average age of 41 years. The majority of fathers were employed full-time, while most mothers reported being unemployed. The sample encompassed parents with diverse educational backgrounds, ranging from high school to doctoral degrees. The largest proportion of participants held a bachelor’s degree, with 54.3% of mothers and 47.1% of fathers in this category. Regarding financial status, the majority of participants indicated being able to meet their daily needs and having some savings. On average, participants reported having two children, with the oldest child’s age ranging from 2 to 32 years and the youngest child’s age ranging from 1 month to 19 years. Detailed demographic characteristics of the participants are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Distribution of sociodemographics

Variable	Mothers (N=188)	Fathers (N=34)
Marriage Status
Married	178 (94.7%)	33 (97.1%)
Single parent	10 (5.3%)	1 (2.9%)
Occupation
Full-time job	67 (35.6%)	25 (73.5%)
Part-time job	42 (22.3%)	4 (11.8%)
Unemployed	79 (42.0%)	5 (14.7%)
Education level
Doctorate degree	5 (2.7%)	2 (5.9%)
Master’s degree	44 (23.4%)	6 (17.6%)
Bachelor’s degree	102 (54.3%)	16 (47.1%)
Diploma	18 (9.6%)	6 (17.6%)
High school	19 (10.1%)	4 (11.8%)
Financial status
Able to meet daily needs and enough for savings	95 (50.5%)	17 (50%)
Able to meet daily needs but not enough for savings	69 (36.7%)	12 (35.3%)
Hardly meet daily needs	23 (12.2%)	4 (11.8%)
Unable to meet daily needs	1 (.5%)	1 (2.9%)

2.3. Measurement

2.3.1. Demographics

Participants were asked to provide information on their gender, age, marital status, occupation, education level, family financial condition, number of children, age of the oldest child, and age of the youngest child.

2.3.2. Parents Education Anxiety Questionnaire (PEAQ)

The PEAQ (Chen et al., 2022) is a self-report instrument designed to assess parents’ anxiety levels regarding their child’s educational process. The questionnaire consists of six dimensions, namely: academic performance anxiety, physical condition anxiety, security condition anxiety, psychological condition anxiety, future anxiety, and teacher’s condition anxiety. Each dimension is represented by two items, resulting in a total of 12 items in the questionnaire. Examples of the items include “I am worried that the child cannot attend a better school,” “I am concerned about my child being bullied by others at school,” and “I worry about the quality of my child’s teacher.” Participants rate their responses on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always). The PEAQ score is calculated by summing the responses for each item, with higher scores indicating higher levels of education-related anxiety experienced by the parents.

2.3.3. Scale of Positive and Negative Experience (SPANE)

The 12-item SPANE (Subjective Positive and Negative Experience) questionnaire, available in the Indonesian context (Akhtar & Firmanto, 2021), was utilized in this study. It comprises six items that measure positive feelings (e.g., good, joyful) and six items that measure negative feelings (e.g., unpleasant, angry). Participants were required to rate their experiences using a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (very rarely or never) to 5 (very often or always). The positive score (SPANE-P) and negative score (SPANE-N) can both range from 6 to 30. In this study, both the SPANE-P (α=.88) and SPANE-N (α=.85) demonstrated good internal consistency, indicating that the items within each subscale are reliably measuring their intended constructs. The SPANE provides a reliable measure of subjective positive and negative experiences in the Indonesian context.

2.4. Procedure

This study received ethical approval from the Research Ethics Commission of Universitas Padjadjaran with ethical clearance number 370/UN6.KEP/EC/2023. This approval signifies that the research procedures were sanctioned while considering the applicable ethical, legal, social implications and other applicable regulations. Data collection was conducted through the Google Forms platform. Participants were recruited through various channels, including popular social media platforms like Instagram, Facebook, and Telegram, as well as through contacts within different parent communities in Indonesia. Prior to accessing the questionnaire, potential participants were provided with comprehensive information about the study, including its purpose, procedures, potential risks and benefits, confidentiality, and their rights as participants. They were explicitly informed of their voluntary participation and the option to withdraw from the study at any time without facing any negative consequences. Participants were required to provide informed consent before accessing the questionnaire, and those who declined were unable to proceed. The questionnaire was designed to be completed independently by participants using their personal electronic devices. Participants were estimated to spend approximately 15 minutes in total to provide responses to the demographic items (2 minutes), the 12 items of PEAQ (7 minutes), as well as the 12 items of SPANE questionnaire (6 minutes).

2.5. Data analysis

Internal consistency estimation, specifically Cronbach’s alpha, was used to evaluate reliability. A Cronbach’s alpha value of .70 or above was deemed satisfactory, indicating sufficient reliability (Kaplan & Sacuzzo, 2005). A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to assess the internal structure of the test and its accuracy in measuring the intended construct. The model evaluation was based on several criteria, including a non-significant chi-square value (p > .05), a Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) value below .08, a Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) value below .05, a Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) above .90, and a Comparative Fit Index (CFI) above .90 (Browne & Cudeck, 1992; Hu & Bentler, 1999). While the chi-square value can be influenced by sample size, the primary parameters used in this study were RMSEA, SRMR, TLI, and CFI. Factor loading analysis was conducted to evaluate the contribution of each item to measuring the intended construct, and factor loadings exceeding .50 with a p-value below .05 were considered acceptable (Hu & Bentler, 1999).

Concurrent validity was examined by correlating the parents’ education anxiety scores with the scores for positive and negative feelings obtained from the Scale of Positive and Negative Experience (SPANE). The interpretation of correlation coefficients followed the criteria proposed by Guilford (Tredoux & Durrheim, 2002). Correlations below .19 were considered slight, indicating an almost negligible relationship. Correlations ranging from .20 to .39 were classified as low, indicating a definite but small relationship. Correlations between .40 and .69 were categorized as moderate, suggesting a substantial relationship. Correlations between .70 and .89 were considered high, indicating a strong relationship. Correlations between .90 and 1.00 were classified as extreme, indicating a highly reliant relationship.

ata analysis was conducted using distinct software packages, each tailored to the specific analytical requirements. Reliability analysis and concurrent validity analysis were executed within IBM SPSS Statistics version 22.0 (IBM, 2013). For confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), JASP version 0.16.4 (JASP, 2020) was employed.

3. Results

3.1. First stage: pre-condition

In the initial stage, the researcher obtained permission from the original author of the Parents Education Anxiety Questionnaire (PEAQ) to adapt and translate the instrument for use in the current research.

3.2. Second stage: test development

In the second stage of this study, the research team aimed to develop the Indonesian version of the Parents Education Anxiety Questionnaire (PEAQ). To ensure the accuracy of the translation process, forward translation was conducted by a psychology graduate who is a native Indonesian speaker, fluent in English, and familiar with Indonesian culture. The translated version was subsequently back-translated into English by a different translator, following the same criteria. This process allowed the research team to identify any discrepancies or ambiguities in the translation and ensure that the original items’ intended meaning was maintained. Finally, the research team synthesized the two translations to produce a final version of the questionnaire that accurately reflected the construct being measured. The synthesized version was then reviewed and revised to ensure the clarity and comprehensibility of the items for the target population.

The I-CVI calculations, based on evaluations from two experts, indicate that this measurement tool demonstrates content validity (I-CVI = 1.00). Additionally, feedback was provided regarding item 11 (I am worried that the teacher is not good for his children), which appeared slightly different from the original questionnaire and was perceived as more difficult to endorse compared to the original item. As a result of this feedback, the item was revised to align more closely with the original item, which measures the general evaluation of teachers.

During one-on-one cognitive interviews with three parents, it was found that the items were generally easy to understand. However, feedback was received regarding item 6 (I am worried that the child is bullied by others during school) suggesting the use of more commonly known words. Consequently, the word “dirundung” (bullied) was changed to “diganggu” (bothered) to enhance clarity and comprehension.

3.3. Third stage: confirmation

3.3.1. Reliability analysis

The reliability analysis conducted on the Indonesian version of PEAQ demonstrated good internal consistency, with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .90. Furthermore, the reliability analysis for each dimension of the questionnaire yielded mostly favorable results. However, two out of the six dimensions fell slightly below the criterion of .70 (academic performance = .72; physical condition = .69; security condition = .69; psychological condition = .89; future = .73; teacher’s condition = .89).

3.3.2. The confirmatory factor analysis

In the first-order confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), the model was tested to confirm whether each item adequately measured the corresponding dimensions as postulated by the existing theory. The results of the CFA for the six-factor model indicated a good fit to the data, with the following fit indices: Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = .97, Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) = .95, Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) = .07, and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) = .04. These fit indices indicate that the model provided a good representation of the observed data.

Furthermore, a factor loading analysis was conducted to assess the contribution of each item to its respective dimension. As illustrated in Figure 1, all factor loadings were above .50, ranging from .66 to .94, with p-values less than .05. These findings suggest that each item significantly contributes to the measurement of its corresponding dimension, supporting the construct validity of the questionnaire.

Figure 1. First-order model.

A second-order confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to explore the presence of higher-order factors beyond the six dimensions of the PEAQ. Initially, the results indicated that the model did not fit the data well, as indicated by the fit indices: Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = .95, Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) = .93, Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) = .084, and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) = .056. The RMSEA and SRMR values did not meet the criteria for good fit.

To improve the model fit, modifications were made by adjusting for 10 pairs of co-variance errors based on the modification indices. Several iterations were performed to refine the model, resulting in improved goodness-of-fit indices. The final modified second-order CFA model demonstrated good fit with the following indices: CFI = .99, TLI = .98, RMSEA = .04, and SRMR = .04. These findings suggest that the higher-order model provides a suitable framework for analyzing the construct of parents’ education anxiety.

A summary of the goodness-of-fit indices obtained from the first-order CFA (model 1), the initial second-order CFA (model 2), and the modified second-order CFA (model 3) can be found in Table 2, providing an overview of the fit of each model to the data.

Table 2. Goodness-of-fit indices for model 1, model 2, and model 3

Model	CFI	TLI	RMSEA	SRMR
Model 1: First-order model	.97	.95	.07	.04
Model 2: Initial second-order model	.95	.93	.08	.05
Model 3: Modified second-order model	.99	.98	.04	.04

Note. CFI = Comparative Fit Index; TLI = Tucker-Lewis Index; RMSEA = Root Mean Square Error of Approximation; SRMR = Standardized Root Mean Residual (SRMR).

Figure 2 displays the path diagram of the second-order model. The analysis of each dimension revealed that all six dimensions exhibited standardized factor loadings above .50 with significant p-values (p < .05). These findings indicate that each dimension significantly contributes to measuring the latent variable of parents’ education anxiety. Notably, security condition anxiety obtained the highest factor loading (λ = .95, p < .05), followed closely by future anxiety (λ = .94, p < .05). Thus, it can be inferred that security condition anxiety and future anxiety are the most influential latent variables in explaining parents’ education anxiety.

Figure 2. Second-order model.

Concurrent validity was assessed by examining the correlation between the total PEAQ score, representing parents’ education anxiety, and the scores for positive and negative experiences obtained from the SPANE. As presented in Table 3, the results demonstrate that the correlations between parents’ education anxiety and the two emotional experiences align with expectations and are statistically significant. Specifically, the SPANE-Positive score exhibits a moderate negative correlation with parents’ education anxiety (r = −.35, p < .01), Conversely, the SPANE-Negative score demonstrates a moderate positive correlation with parents’ education anxiety (r = .47, p < .01).

Table 3. Correlations between variables

Variable	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
1. Age	-
2. Gender	−.29**	-
3. Occupation	−.16*	.26**	-
4. Education level	−.04	−.04	.27**	-
5. Financial status	.07	−.02	.11	−31**	-
6. PEAQ	−.07	−.08	.01	.08	.17*	-
7. SPANE-P	.19**	−.17**	−.05	.01	−.15*	−.35**	-
8. SPANE-N	−.32**	.29**	.17*	−.01	.15*	.47**	−.62**	-

Note. PEAQ = Parents education anxiety questionnaire; SPANE-P = Positive emotion experience; SPANE-N = Negative emotion experience; **p<.01; *p<.05.

Furthermore, our exploration of inter-variable correlations unveiled a significant correlation between PEAQ scores and financial status, albeit with a relatively low correlation coefficient (r = .17, p < .05).

3.4. Fourth stage: administration

Following the successful confirmation of the adapted PEAQ, we proceeded with its administration to the target population. The administration stage encompassed the translation of all materials into Bahasa Indonesia, with a focus on linguistic accuracy and cultural sensitivity. Additionally, cognitive interviews were conducted with a sample of participants to assess the clarity and comprehensibility of the questionnaire instructions. These efforts resulted in successful administration materials and instructions that minimized potential issues related to language and culture during the actual administration of the questionnaire.

3.5. Fifth stage: score scales and interpretation

The data collected through the administration stage were subjected to rigorous scoring and interpretation procedures. Mean scores were calculated for both the overall PEAQ and its sub-dimensions, with scores ranging from 1 to 5. These scores were not transformed into z-scores or other metrics to maintain the interpretability of the original scale. In this way, our scoring approach allowed for an examination of both the overall construct and its dimensions, contributing to a comprehensive understanding of parental education anxiety in the Indonesian context.

3.6. Sixth stage: documentation

In the documentation stage, we systematically wrote the user manual for people who will be using the Indonesian version of PEAQ in practical assessment settings.

4. Discussion

This study aimed to validate the Parents Education Anxiety Questionnaire (PEAQ) in the Indonesian context, and the findings provide support for its psychometric properties as hypothesized. The results demonstrate satisfactory internal consistency, indicating that the items in the questionnaire consistently measure parents’ education-related anxiety. The factor structure of the PEAQ, comprising six factors (academic performance anxiety, physical condition anxiety, security condition anxiety, psychological condition anxiety, future anxiety, and teacher’s condition anxiety), fits well to both the first-order and second-order models. This suggests that the questionnaire effectively captures the different dimensions of parents’ education anxiety. Furthermore, the PEAQ exhibits concurrent validity, as indicated by the significant correlations with the Scale of Positive and Negative Experience (SPANE).

The results of the internal consistency analysis of the Parents Education Anxiety Questionnaire (PEAQ) and its dimensions in this study align with previous research conducted by Chen et al. (2022). The fact that the adapted measurement retained the same items as the original version used in China, without the need for any revisions or eliminations, suggests that these items are suitable for assessing parents’ education anxiety in the Indonesian context. This consistency in item performance across different cultural contexts can be attributed to the shared cultural characteristics between Indonesia and China as Asian countries.

The results of both the first-order and second-order CFAs provide strong evidence for the construct validity of the adapted PEAQ among the Indonesian population. The first-order CFA analysis demonstrated that all items effectively captured their respective dimensions as posited by existing theory, thus exhibiting a favorable fit with the collected data. These outcomes align with the original measurement tool, substantiating the six-factor model’s efficacy in representing parents’ education anxiety (Chen et al., 2022). Furthermore, this study contributes novel insights by exploring higher-order models that were not previously elucidated in the original version of the instrument. The second-order CFA analysis revealed that the higher-order model is also appropriate for comprehensively examining the construct of parents’ education anxiety. These findings indicate that, conceptually, parents’ educational anxiety is a multidimensional construct consisting of academic performance anxiety, physical condition anxiety, security condition anxiety, psychological condition anxiety, future anxiety, and teacher’s condition anxiety, but it can also be viewed or measured as a single construct representing overall parental education anxiety. Therefore, the PEAQ-Indonesian version can yield two scores: a total parent education anxiety score to gauge the overall level of anxiety that parents experience regarding their child’s education and a multidimensional score to examine each constituent aspect. As emphasized by previous studies, using a multidimensional questionnaire, such as the PEAQ, can provide a more comprehensive understanding and help identify specific aspects of parents’ education anxiety that require attention, allowing for more targeted and effective interventions to support parents and their children. Multidimensional questionnaires also provide greater flexibility in data analysis, as researchers can choose to analyze the data at the overall level or at the level of each facet of the construct, depending on the research question (Parent & Forehand, 2017; Wei et al., 2013).

This study further demonstrated a moderate correlation between the Parents Education Anxiety Questionnaire (PEAQ) and the Scale of Positive and Negative Experience (SPANE), which assesses positive and negative feelings experiences. The obtained findings align with prior research indicating a positive association between anxiety and negative feelings and a negative association between anxiety and positive feelings (Corno et al., 2016; Giuntoli et al., 2017). This consistent pattern suggests that higher levels of anxiety tend to be accompanied by increased negative emotions and reduced positive emotions.

The results of this study highlight the importance of the PEAQ-Indonesian version as a reliable and valid tool for measuring parents’ education anxiety. These findings have significant implications for both research and practice in the field of education. From a research perspective, the availability of a validated measurement tool allows researchers to accurately assess and measure parents’ education anxiety in the Indonesian context. This opens up opportunities for further investigation into the factors influencing parental anxiety, its impact on children’s educational outcomes, and the development of effective interventions to support parents. From a practical perspective, the findings of this study suggest that schools and other organizations involved in education could benefit from implementing programs that help parents manage their anxiety related to their child’s education. Such programs could include training in emotion regulation, counseling services, and support groups for parents.

Although the present study provides support for the psychometric properties of the Parents Education Anxiety Questionnaire (PEAQ), it is important to acknowledge the limitations that may impact the generalizability of the findings. One significant limitation is the use of a small sample size obtained through convenience sampling. This sampling method may introduce selection biases and limit the extent to which the findings can be generalized to a larger population. It is important to note that the majority of participants in this study possessed tertiary education and belonged to middle to upper economic status. Consequently, this manuscript primarily concentrates on individuals from higher socioeconomic strata. This specific demographic subgroup’s focus is driven by the potential influence of higher socioeconomic status on the provision of additional educational resources and support for children, which, as demonstrated in previous research (Jin et al., 2017), may alleviate levels of educational anxiety. However, it is imperative to acknowledge that this focused approach inherently narrows the scope of generalizability, as it does not encompass the full spectrum of educational backgrounds and socioeconomic statuses present within the broader population. To enhance the robustness and generalizability of future research, it is recommended to address these limitations by employing a larger and more diverse sample. This would involve recruiting participants from a wider range of educational backgrounds and socioeconomic statuses. In addition to expanding the sample size and diversity, future studies could consider employing more rigorous sampling techniques, such as random sampling, to minimize potential biases associated with convenience sampling. This would further enhance the reliability and generalizability of the research findings.

5. Conclusion

This study validated the Parents Education Anxiety Questionnaire (PEAQ) for use in the Indonesian context. The results demonstrate that the adapted PEAQ-Indonesian version is a reliable and valid tool for measuring parental anxiety related to their child’s education. The questionnaire consists of 12 items representing six dimensions of parental education anxiety, and its factor structure fits well with the data. The findings have important implications for research and practice, providing a valuable instrument to investigate parental education anxiety and develop targeted interventions to support parents and improve their well-being in relation to their child’s education.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Supplementary material

Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2023.2287891

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the Universitas Padjadjaran.

Notes on contributors

Rizky Putri Amalia

Rizky Putri Amalia, S.Psi, is a master’s degree student in educational psychology at the Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Padjadjaran, Indonesia. With a passion for parenting and education, she explores topics such as parenting stress, supportive parenting, and parents education anxiety.

Dr. Fitri Ariyanti Abidin, M.Psi, Psikolog, is an associate professor at the Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Padjadjaran, heading the Center for Family Life and Parenting Studies. Her research and clinical practice concentrate on parenting, family relationships, and the mental health of parents.

Dr. Fitriani Yustikasari Lubis, M.Psi., Psikolog, is a lecturer at the Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Padjadjaran. She has authored numerous research papers about the critical role of parents in supporting academic adjustments, gifted education and various parenting-related topics.

Hery Susanto, M.Psi., Psikolog, is a lecturer at the Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Padjadjaran. Active in research and teaching, he specializes in educational psychology, cognitive psychology, and psychometrics.