Essential transition components and curriculum for students with disabilities to access postsecondary education in Botswana

Abstract

Postsecondary education participation is crucial for successful transition to employment, consequently leading to self-reliant and productive lives especially for students with disabilities (SWDs). This study was conducted to examine teachers’ perceptions of pertinent transition components and the significance of the curriculum in promoting a smooth transition to postsecondary education for SWDs. Quantitative research using a cross-sectional survey was conducted with 258 participants. Determination of significant differences among distinct groups of teachers was based on Kruskal–Wallis tests with Mann Whitney U tests run as follow-up to identify where differences existed between groups. Generally, participants agreed, among others, that a written plan, variety of activities, academic and functional skills, and involvement of students’ parents/families in the transition process were essential transition components. However, participants disagreed about the relevance of mathematics, science, English and Setswana languages, and optional subjects in promoting successful transition to postsecondary education. Participants also varied on the extent to which they agreed and disagreed with transition components and coursework, respectively, in promoting a smooth transition process. It is therefore recommended that secondary teachers engage in professional development activities to minimize disparities in transition understanding and enhance their transition knowledge and competencies, thus facilitating successful transition of SWDs to postsecondary education.

Keywords:

• Botswana
• curriculum
• post-school outcomes
• postsecondary education
• students with disabilities
• transition

1. Introduction

The economic collapse experienced during the historic recession of 2008–2009 and the current poor economic performances in both developed and developing nations due to the COVID-19 pandemic have strengthened the argument that postsecondary education is essential for all individuals to lead productive lives, particularly those with disabilities. As the economy of Botswana heads towards becoming more knowledge-based, obtaining a postsecondary education qualification becomes more imperative (Jotia et al., 2016). Generally, postsecondary education refers to formal learning opportunities following completion of high school, including opportunities geared towards equipping individuals with occupational skills or earning academic credits from a higher education institution (Cobb et al., 2013; Morningstar & Mazzotti, 2014). Examples of postsecondary education institutions include universities, colleges, and technical or vocational schools. In Botswana, the exit outcomes of postsecondary education include acquisition of a diploma, certification, or academic degree. Despite the importance of postsecondary education, the situation in Botswana is worrisome, especially for individuals with disabilities who continue to experience lower participation rates.

It is worth noting that off the 2.1 million population estimate recorded in a 2015/16 survey in Botswana approximately 56,000 (2.7%) individuals were identified as having a disability of some sort (Statistics Botswana, 2018). Only 34.9%. of individuals with disabilities were reported to be employed and of these individuals, only 5.2% completed postsecondary education, reflecting the lowest proportion of employees with disabilities in comparison to those who completed primary school education, junior secondary education, and senior secondary education rated at 31.1%, 27.0%, and 5.5%, respectively. Generally, the rates of individuals with disabilities who completed primary education, junior secondary education, senior secondary education, and postsecondary education were noted as 33.0%, 12.4%, 4.0%, and 0.4%, respectively. These findings reflect that the higher you climb up the ladder of education level, the more difficult it becomes to succeed for individuals with disabilities, therefore the lower their participation rates in employment (Dogbe, 2015; Ookeditse, 2018). Thus, lower rates of participation for students with disabilities (SWDs) in postsecondary education are a major concern that needs serious attention as the outlook for jobs demanding training above high school education will become more vigorous in the desired transition from a resource-based economy to a knowledge-based economy in Botswana. While SWDs are those with some form of emotional, intellectual, physical, or sensory conditions that limit their functioning in one or more major life activities thereby requiring special education supports and services to access education and develop to their maximum potential, in Botswana, the most common disabilities in students include learning disabilities, intellectual disabilities, visual impairments, and hearing impairments (Ookeditse, 2018).

Establishing that SWDs are given adequate access to and full engagement in postsecondary education has been noted as one of the several challenges experienced in secondary education and transition (Morningstar & Mazzotti, 2014; Ookeditse & Dunn, 2021; Test et al., 2015). Postsecondary education has been found to enhance earning potential for youth who enroll for education programs beyond high school, including those who have not obtained a college degree (Fleming & Fairweather, 2012). Moreover, literature has revealed the extent to which the employment rates and earnings of individuals with college degrees and having learning disabilities were generally comparable with the United States labor force (Cortiella & Horowitz, 2014). Despite the availability of transition planning and programming principles and practices for decades dating back as far as the bridges transition model, codifying the components of the transition planning process, the time is now to pay particular attention to postsecondary education as a crucial transition outcome if the goal is to produce productive individuals with disabilities. Given the pervasive poor academic performance of SWDs across all education levels and poor post-school outcomes in Botswana (Government of Botswana, 2015), there is a need for implementation of comprehensive transition programs to alleviate the situation. Transition planning and programming is an imperative aspect of SWDs that should provide a firm foundation for building educational programs and activities for the purpose of attaining successful postsecondary outcomes. Effective transition programs provide access to appropriate services for SWDs as they progress from school to adulthood (Morningstar & Mazzotti, 2014). This study extends the plea for secondary schools to ensure that transition to postsecondary education becomes a priority by investigating the extent to which transition components that have been considered to allow SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education in developed nations apply to developing nations like Botswana.

In Botswana, there are numerous policies that promote educational access, equity, and quality for all students, including those with disabilities. These include the Revised National Policy on Education (RNPE) of 1994, the Tertiary Education Policy of 2008, and the Inclusive Policy on Education of 2011. It is worth noting that these policies provide a meaningful foundation for meeting the unique educational needs of all students across the different levels of education. Even so, little has been achieved concerning the effective delivery of transition services and supports for SWDs. Regrettably, the research that has been conducted in line with postsecondary education for transition-age youths with disabilities concerning components that influence postsecondary participation (Lindsay et al., 2019; Papay & Bambara, 2011; Trainor et al., 2020; U.S. Department of Education, 2017) does not focus on developing nations such as Botswana to examine teachers’ perceptions on whether the identified components are essential in promoting students’ successful transition to postsecondary education.

Generally, there is inadequate research on secondary school transition planning and programs for SWDs, especially concerning what components are deemed as essential for promoting a smooth transition to postsecondary education in Botswana (Ookeditse, 2018). Perceptions of secondary teachers in Botswana have not been sufficiently investigated on what practices needed to be considered and implemented in secondary schools including the extent to which the school curriculum was pertinent in ensuring that SWDs transitioned successfully to postsecondary education settings. The secondary curriculum is a national curriculum that entails a set of courses offered across all public secondary schools in Botswana. Unfortunately, most SWDs continue to exhibit poor performance on the national secondary curriculum as demonstrated by poor academic performance in national final examinations that Botswana Examinations Council provides during the last school term of the final year of senior secondary education (Habulezi, 2022; Ookeditse, 2018). Moreover, the inquiry on which transition components are compatible or incompatible with the literature remains unresolved. This is a significant challenge since teachers are expected to play a crucial part in the transition process including forming strategic alliances with other partners to formulate educational programs that are congruent with individual students’ transition goals. Thus, a paucity of knowledge exists on whether components that have been determined to influence successful transition to postsecondary education in developed nations cut across cultural boundaries and apply globally.

1.1. Essential transition components

Secondary education is a key step towards preparing SWDs for postsecondary education. Studies have been conducted on practices that promote the engagement of people with disabilities in postsecondary education, beginning with the bridges transition model (Will’s, 1984). Even though several researchers (e.g., Brolin, 1989; Halpern, 1985; Wehman et al., 1985) initiated several alternative transition models after this model, they portrayed a serious limitation of visibly failing to link theory to transition practice. As a result, a more comprehensive model named Kohler’s Taxonomy for Transition Programming (KTTP) was developed in 1996 that addresses effective transition service delivery practices and aimed at increasing transition understanding. Hence, this study adopts this model to determine teachers’ perceptions about essential transition components.

Transition planning is an important stride that is necessary in developing appropriate learning programs instead of considering it as a complementary activity (Kohler, 1996). The concept of transition focused planning demonstrates a change of pattern from concentrating on a student’s disability and planning based on individual needs to service-delivery practices that consider their strengths, preferences, as well as self-determination (Kohler et al., 2016; Rowe et al., 2013). The KTTP model is scholarly, conversant, and consistently cited in transition research that guides designing, shaping, and evaluating effective provision of transition programs. Critical planning and programming of transition in the KTTP model involves five components, namely student-focused planning, student development, interagency collaboration, program structure, and family participation (Kohler, 1996; Kohler et al., 2016).

Student-focused planning targets the participation of students in Individualized Education Programs (IEPs), through considering the vigor and appropriateness of courses of study in the IEP, integration of suitable and clearly defined IEP goals that are measurable, imparting students with pertinent knowledge and skills on transition planning, together with utilizing transition assessment approaches that are structured and convenient (Morningstar & Mazzotti, 2014; Sprunger et al., 2018). Students that are actively involved in the transition programming get the opportunity to acquire enhanced self-determination and self-awareness skills which are core for taking responsibility towards postsecondary plans (Mazzotti et al., 2021; Morningstar et al., 2010; Test et al., 2015). It is worth noting that in student-focused planning, teachers are permitted to utilise a value-based strategy in their thinking, communication approaches, assessment, preparation for, and addressing SWDs’ needs (Rowe et al., 2013).

An additional transition component is student development that focuses on assessment and preparing students with essential operational, educational, social and employment skills to overcome the fears of adult life (Kohler, 1996). It is therefore, the duty of teachers to ensure that students live independently, take part in community events, obtain work-based skills, seek and obtain gainful employment, as well as acquire educational and self-determination skills. Evidence suggests the need for teachers to play a critical role in evaluating and training students in transition-related skills guided by students’ personal needs, using appropriate approaches to their culture bearing in mind cultural knowledge, prior experience, and different styles of acquiring knowledge with diverse backgrounds (Gay, 2010; Rowe et al., 2015). If students are to obtain comprehensive transition services, thus improving their postsecondary outcomes, teachers must be knowledgeable of transition planning assessment (Curry & Jones, 2014).

Furthermore, Kohler (1996) and Morningstar and Mazzotti (2014) stipulated that program structure concentrates on assessment and enhancement of learning programs as an approach to address transition needs of SWDs. Teachers’ responsibility in this area includes acceleration of meaningful transition service delivery and active transition planning strategies, as well as finding ways of appreciating and securing necessary support at distinct stages of the transition process. Teachers, administrators, and all school personnel should have adequate understanding of what they should do such that transition programs are successful (Test et al., 2015). The program structure enables students to focus on unique transition goals as well as the ability to follow execution plans for a successful transition process.

Another transition component identified to be critical is the involvement of families by engaging them in their children’s transition planning and service delivery procedures along with encouraging them to be active participants in the process (Doreen et al., 2012; Wagner et al., 2012). This transition component has been identified from the literature to influence positive post-school outcomes; hence, the need for working with students’ families to be considered in teacher training programs regarding the transition process (Mazzotti et al., 2021). Rowe et al. (2013) emphasized that families, parents, and guardians should be fully involved in transition planning and programming and understand different transition planning aspects from taking part in the decision-making process, support provision, service provision to participating in school meetings. It has been noted that when families support their children’s education, such support increases learners’ self-confidence with an enhanced likelihood of motivation in academics (Wairimu et al., 2016). Moreover, family participation has been found to increase students’ academic scores and accomplishments (Boonk et al., 2018; Castro et al., 2015; Sibley & Dearing, 2014), improve their involvement in structured groups at school, enhance students’ interpersonal skills, and increase their postsecondary admission participation resulting in securing gainful employment than those whose families are not actively involved (Newman, 2005).

The last transition component is interagency collaboration. This transition component relates to approaches for introducing links and alliances with institutions outside the school of the students so that they obtain improved post-school outcomes. Teachers must be conversant of vital features of interagency collaboration, studied beyond the scope of their training programs, and be able to initiate and maintain relationships between external bodies, students, and their families during the transition process. Interagency collaboration is a predictor of successful transition to postsecondary education and/or employment and an evidence-based intervention strategy for SWDs (Morgan et al., 2014; Test et al., 2015). It is imperative to note that the nature and degree of a student’s disability influences the nature of the collaborative framework with external entities; thus, teachers need to have rich knowledge of a student’s disability founded on proper evaluations (Mazzotti et al., 2021).

Patton and Kim (2016) further classified Kohler’s transition components into three key domains, namely, learning, working, and living. It is worth noting that students with disabilities may not have needs in all areas but should be examined in all areas for a successful smooth transition. According to Strnadová and Cumming (2014), these are identified as best practices in transition planning that are linked to positive outcomes for students. These transition components play an important role in the transition. When considered and utilized, the focus becomes limited to two aspects of transition that are critical: predicting future in-school through employment training and work experiences and postsecondary success for students’ futures (Mazzotti et al., 2013, 2021; Patton & Kim, 2016; Wehman et al.,2014) and they provide direction for preparing secondary special educators and transition specialists in evidence-based practices showing at least moderate effects on students’ skill development (Johnson, 2014; Morningstar & Mazzotti, 2014).

1.2. Secondary curriculum and postsecondary education

Secondary education is mainly meant to prepare students for postsecondary education which is a stepping stone towards obtaining gainful employment. Secondary education entails students’ participation in courses that equip them with academic and functional skills that contribute to their career paths and prepare them for life after school and related challenges (Cobb et al., 2013; Lopez-Mayan & Nicodemo, 2015). Secondary education relates to giving students opportunities to enroll in coursework that imparts them with requisite knowledge and skills to prepare them to attain their career goals. Thus, secondary coursework encompasses high school-level areas or subjects of study that result in earning of high school credits to successful exit high school (i.e., Mathematics, Science, English Language). Not only do courses of study encompass theoretical work but also include practical work that gives students practical experiences needed beyond secondary school. Literature has underscored the importance of combining theoretical work with practical work experiences or other aspects of the curriculum to achieve desired results following completion of secondary education (Cobb et al., 2013). SWDs who are involved in technical and practical coursework have a higher likelihood of securing employment (Baer et al., 2011; Haber et al., 2016; Wagner et al., 2017). For instance, Haber et al. (2016) found out that students who participated in vocational coursework had increased chances of obtaining permanent employment. Moreover, Wagner et al. (2017) noted that the more a student had vocational education credits, the more the student’s chances were increased for participating in postsecondary education and employment.

In addition, Mazzotti et al. (2021) stipulated that a student’s program of study was a positive predictor for successful transition to postsecondary education. The program of study is a merger of courses targeted at meeting an individual’s unique educational needs, distinct background, and curriculum focused on improving a student’s academic and functional skills to facilitate successful entry into postsecondary settings (Rowe et al., 2013). If students are to be vigorously engaged in and successfully complete their programs of study, teachers must have sufficient training to work with them to develop programs that are amenable to relevant school experiences (Rowe et al., 2013). Teachers should, therefore, be well informed of post-school success predictors, distinct categories of individualized learning programs (Solberg et al., 2014), as well as postsecondary opportunities for SWDs.

Program of study consists of coursework, which is specified clearly for each student to complete so as to gain successful entry into desired post-school environments (Kohler et al., 2016; Morningstar & Mazzotti, 2014). Courses of study involve providing comprehensive information of student’s coursework from the time they begin their programs till the expected date of finishing the program in view to accomplish desired postsecondary goals. The preferred postsecondary goals must conform to coursework and be evaluated annually to validate that students complete all courses successfully, as well as that students do not withdraw from compulsory courses, or to establish course accessibility to students. Moreover, successful transition to postsecondary settings entails having a planned course of study with a specific strategy that supports students to achieve their measurable postsecondary goals.

1.3. Purpose of study

In light of the low rates of participation of SWDs in postsecondary education and the desire for Botswana to transition from a resource-based to a knowledge-based economy, there is a need to establish whether current secondary school practices for delivering educational services to SWDs in Botswana are helpful for these students to transition successfully to postsecondary education as perceived by secondary teachers who provide educational interventions. Since a knowledge-based economy is one in which knowledge is a key element in growth, creation of wealth, and employment, successful completion of postsecondary education becomes a critical catalyst for attaining this kind of economy. Hence, the successful transition of SWDs to postsecondary education is an important step for producing graduates with adequate knowledge to respond effectively to the needs of the society. Jotia et al. (2016)noted that students’ participation in postsecondary education enhances the likelihood of building a knowledge-driven economy. There is also a need to establish whether high school or senior secondary school curriculum effectively prepares SWDs for postsecondary education participation. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine senior secondary teachers’ perceptions on what components were essential for consideration in transition planning and programming and the relevance of the curriculum in helping SWDs to transition to postsecondary education successfully. Essential transition components include: (a) a written plan; (b) variety of activities; (c) transition goals and objectives; (d) students’ strengths, abilities, preferences, interests, and needs; (e) transition assessment; (f) academic and functional skills; (g) appropriate post-school outcome; (h) parents/family involvement; and (i) internal collaboration and with external entities. The curriculum entails courses offered at senior secondary education (i.e., Mathematics, Science, English Language, Setswana Language, Optional Subjects). Successful transition to postsecondary education for SWDs encompasses among other factors teachers’ knowledge and understanding of transition, teachers’ positive transition attitudes, and effective delivery of transition supports and services (Ookeditse, 2018).

Furthermore, the study aimed at examining whether participants’ position (i.e., general education teachers, special education teachers, guidance and counseling teachers) influenced their perceptions on what components were essential for consideration in transition planning and programming, including their perceptions on the relevance of the school curriculum. Understanding participants’ perceptions based on their positions is crucial for the study given the distinct and complimentary roles they play in the transition process. In Botswana, general education teachers are mainly responsible for providing academic instruction to SWDs while special education teachers are primarily tasked with providing appropriate accommodations and modifications for SWDs. Counseling teachers are mainly responsible for supporting the academic, career, and personal development of students through collaborative work with other teachers and external entities. Hence, teachers’ roles and understanding of transition might positively or negatively influence how they perceive essential transition components and relevance of the curriculum. Moreover, teachers’ comprehensive understanding of the essential transition components and curriculum relevance might help to alleviate the low rates of postsecondary education participation among SWDs. When teachers understand critical transition components and the relevance of the curriculum, they are more likely to implement transition practices successfully (Dogbe, 2015). Therefore, effective transition planning and a relevant curriculum are necessary to enable SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education. Transition planning allows SWDs to plan for life after secondary education, figure out how to reach their desired goals, and navigate through challenges on the way to their desired destination after completion of secondary education, thus enhancing opportunities for participation in postsecondary education, employment, and independent living (Butler, 2021).

2. Method

2.1. Research approach

The purpose of this study was to examine senior secondary teachers’ perceptions in Botswana on essential transition components and the relevance of the school curriculum in helping SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education. The study adopted a quantitative research approach to answer the research question relating to whether there were significant differences among senior secondary teachers with respect to teacher position. A quantitative approach was necessary for examining the presence of a relationship on a variable, consequently allowing for a collection of data easily using a survey (Creswell, 2015).

2.2. Research setting

The research setting for this study encompassed senior secondary schools (SSS) located in two education regions in Botswana, namely Kgatleng and South East. The two education regions were purposively selected for inclusion in this study. It was critical to select participants from these regions given that Kgatleng is the first region to have schools that provide special education services to SWDs with programs that have been improved over the years and consequently regarded as a hub of special education, while South East was selected on the basis that it is the economic center of Botswana and that it had a higher probability of special education teachers since the capital city Gaborone is situated in the region. Regarding the presence of SWDs in the two locations, while Kgatleng has a variety of disabilities, the region is predominant with students with visual impairments. In contrast, South East region is predominant with students with learning disabilities, although other disability classifications are also evident. Teachers employed in senior secondary schools in Kgatleng and South East were selected for participation in the survey. The senior secondary schools are positioned in rural, semi-urban, and urban areas within and near the capital city Gaborone. Senior secondary school education in Botswana represents the last two years of secondary education and is proportionate to high school education in the US. Generally, the age range for senior secondary students in Botswana is 17 to 21. Students are admitted into senior secondary schools following successful completion of junior secondary education, a three year program which is proportionate to US middle school. Once students have successfully completed senior secondary school, they are eligible to enrol for postsecondary education. Otherwise, students who fail national final senior secondary school examinations may choose to enrol for technical and vocational training. While in several countries technical or vocational training credits can be attained during high school, in Botswana students complete senior secondary education first before they are allowed to do so. Thus, possible exit paths following completion of secondary education include technical or vocational schools, colleges, universities, and employment.

2.3. Research design

A survey design was selected for use in this study given its viability in determining generalizations from a sample to a population. Through a survey, a researcher can make an inference on selected characteristics, attitudes, or perceptions of a population in relation to its sample (Creswell, 2012). The anonymity of a survey enhances its reliability and encourages participants to give honest responses to questions compared to interviews (Cohen et al., 2004). Moreover, the presence of standardized measurements in surveys makes it possible for researchers to make comparisons on participants’ data (Fowler, 2014). A cross-sectional survey was utilized in this study as it enabled the collection of data from each senior secondary teacher to occur at one interval. Paper surveys were used to collect data from participants.

2.4. Participants

Participants of this study were senior secondary school teachers from four public senior secondary schools in Kgatleng and South East regions in Botswana. The one and only senior secondary school in Kgatleng was selected given the rich history of special education in the region and the three senior secondary schools in South East that participated in the study had several special education teachers and SWDs. Again, the four schools represent a combination of rural, semi-urban, and urban locations. Participants’ ages ranged from 20 to over 60 years. Participants were mainly tasked with providing education to regular students alongside their counterparts with disabilities in general education classrooms. In Botswana, general education classrooms are learning environments whereby SWDs are taught alongside those without disabilities and receive special education supports and services within the same setting. The cohort of participants included general education teachers, special education teachers, and guidance and counseling teachers. The main responsibility of general educators was to provide educational instructions to all learners in a general education setting in core academic curriculum and apply various appropriate teaching strategies to teach the core curriculum to SWDs. In contrast, special educators were tasked with providing reasonable accommodations to SWDs as well as engaging in collaborative work with general educators to address the unique educational needs of learners. Lastly, the responsibility of guidance and counseling teachers was to engage in collaborative relationships with other teachers as well as entities outside schools to foster appropriate educational supports and services to SWDs. Participants were selected from senior secondary schools within the two education regions using census and purposive sampling methods. Thus, all male and female teachers working in the four schools with at least a bachelor’s degree qualification, having at least one year teaching experience, and having SWDs in their classrooms or supported them outside the classrooms were eligible for participation. The only senior secondary school in Kgatleng and three out of six senior secondary schools in South East agreed to participate in this study. The three schools in South East that refused participation indicated that they were overwhelmed with other research projects. Purposive sampling was critical in this study as Palys and Atchison (2008) contended that this kind of sampling is essential for a researcher to use in selecting a sample bearing in mind pertinent characteristics of a population and the objective of a study. Although this study had a target population of 360 SSS teachers, only 258 completed the survey leading to a response rate of 71.7%. Teachers participated in this study voluntarily and those who did not participate were mainly busy with other school duties or absent from schools during data collection.

2.5. Instrument

The researchers developed the instrument for this study based on literature relating to transition practices and principles for SWDs. The literature included among others Kohler (1996) KTTP model, Test et al. (2009), and Rowe et al. (2013) to formulate a better understanding of essential transition components. The survey instrument had five sections. Section one entailed participants’ demographic information, section two consisted of nine items on essential transition components, and section three had 11 items on distinct transition practices for SWDs in Botswana. In addition, section four was about school curriculum for SWDs with five items while section five consisted of nine items on transition challenges. The instrument utilized a 5-point Likert-type scale (i.e., 1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Agree, 4 = Strongly Agree, 5 = Do Not Know). Although in some instances Do Not Know fits naturally in a neutral place on a 5-point Likert-type scale, in other circumstances it does not, depending on the subject at hand (Dolnicar & Grun, 2014). The use of Do Not Know as a midpoint raises questions as to whether it is truly a midpoint of view between disagreement and agreement or whether it should be taken as a missing view (Chyung et al., 2017). The reason for keeping the Do Not Know option at the end was because of an increased likelihood of having teachers without knowledge of some transition items (Dogbe, 2015; Sprunger et al., 2018) given the lack of a transition policy or legal framework in Botswana. This option allowed separating these items as system missing and resulting in a true 4-point scale for analysis.

The instrument was also subjected to theoretical and empirical validation. Construct validity was tested through the issuance of the instrument to seven transition experts to get their opinions. Based on expert judgment, minor corrections were made as some survey items had to be rearranged and rephrased. A sample of 30 participants were conveniently selected to conduct a pilot study prior to collecting data for this study in order to determine the user-friendliness of the instrument, establish content validity of scores on the instrument, and to improve questions. Minor adjustments were made on the phrasing of few survey items, and none of the data gathered during the pilot study were utilized in this study. Although the survey instrument had five sections, it is worth noting that this study relied on the third and fourth sections of the instrument to address the proposed research questions. The two sections sought teachers’ perceptions on essential transition components and the relevance of the school curriculum in helping SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education. Items relating to essential transition components and curriculum relevance included statements on whether teachers agreed or disagreed that the components and coursework listed in Tables 2 and 3 respectively helped SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education. These survey items had a Cronbach’s alpha of .83. Cronbach’s alpha is a measure of reliability on a group of survey items to establish the internal consistency. Gay et al. (2012) explained that Cronbach’s alpha measures equal to or exceeding .80 reflect a high measure of internal consistency and reliability of a set of survey items. Also, factor analysis was used to determine items that were strongly correlated with each other, thereby grouping such items together as one construct and identifying the number of dimensions on the survey. A Confirmatory Factor Analysis yielded a goodness of fit index (GFI) of .91, Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) of .96, comparative fit index (CFI) of .93 and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) of .04. These results indicate good model fit indices. It is also worth noting that the focus of the instrument used in this study entailed teachers who were teaching SWDs at the time of data collection as well as those who had previously taught SWDs.

2.6. Data collection procedure

Before data collection commenced, ethical approval was sought from Ball State University IRB before conducting the study, where the principal investigator was studying at the time. Permissions to conduct the study were also secured from the Ministry of Basic Education in Botswana, regional directors of Kgatleng and South East, as well as from the headmasters of the chosen senior secondary schools. Letters detailing reasons for carrying out the study were mailed to school headmasters and consequently requesting teachers to take part in the study. Thus, teachers were informed of the study through letters written to their school headmasters.

Headmasters of the selected schools were reached through telephones and reminded of the agreed date and time for data collection a week earlier. During the data collection day, teachers were reminded of the aim of the study and informed that they had the option to participate, decline, or withdraw from being part of the study at any time without disclosing reasons to the researcher. Participants were then issued informed consent forms, asked to read them carefully, and to indicate whether or not they declined being part of the study. Teachers who opted not to participate in the survey were thanked and dismissed while those who decided to participate were then issued paper surveys and requested to complete them in 25 minutes. No participant or location identifying information was collected from participants. Instead, surveys were colour coded and numeric coded for the purpose of easy distribution and confidentiality. The entire data collection exercise ran for about 12 weeks.

2.7. Data analysis

Data analysis was conducted through SPSS Version 27. The data analysis exercise started with computation of participants’ descriptive information such as frequencies, percentages, standard deviations, and means. Participants’ demographic information encompassed gender, age, education qualification, position, teaching experience, school location, and school region. The researchers further recorded responses where participants reflected a lack of knowledge of a survey item as the system was missing and analyzed them as descriptive data. This was an important step, given that participants’ shortage of knowledge of these items would call for engagement in professional development activities provided a 25% cutoff point was surpassed. Separating these survey items as system missing left a true four-point scale for conducting inferential statistical analysis using an alpha-level set of .05. A Kruskal–Wallis test of k groups was run to determine differences among the cohort of teachers (i.e., general educators, special educators, guidance and counseling teachers). The Kruskal–Wallis test was used since the assumption of normality was violated. Field (2012) noted that the Kruskal–Wallis test does not depend on the assumption of normality, especially for unequal and small sample sizes. Once a significant difference between groups was identified, a post-hoc test was run using a Mann Whitney U. Given that the assumptions of normality of the population distributions and homogeneity of variance were not met, the Mann Whitney U was the most appropriate follow-up test choice. Effect sizes (Cohen’s w) were also computed to find out the degrees to which the independent variables impacted on the dependent variables for items where significant differences were found between the three kinds of teachers. A value of .1 was considered a small effect size, while .3 and .5 were considered as medium and large effect sizes, respectively. The effect sizes helped to understand the magnitude of differences found among the three types of teachers. Thus, the higher the effect size, the higher teachers’ position influenced their perceptions about essential transition components and curriculum relevance.

3. Results

3.1. Participants’ demographic information

This study consisted of a total of 258 secondary school teachers. Table 1 displays that the majority of teachers were female (55.0%). Most of the participants in this study fell within the age range of 41 to 50 years (36.4%). The majority of participants had a bachelor’s degree (67.8%), while none of the participants had a doctoral degree. Participants in this study were mostly general education teachers (82.6%), and there were almost equal proportions of special education teachers (8.9%) and guidance and counseling teachers (8.5%). The majority of participants had teaching experience ranging from 11 to 15 years (26.0%) and the same proportion of participants (19.8%) had teaching experience of 16 to 20 years and above 20 years. Most participants (85.7%) reported that they had previously taught a student with a disability, whereas 19.4% of these participants noted that they did not currently have a student with a disability in their classes. The main reason for including teachers who never taught a student with a disability in this study was that many of these teachers had worked collaboratively to offer transition support to SWDs without necessarily being in the forefront of teaching these students. This particularly applies to special education teachers and guidance and counseling teachers who usually provide transition expertise to general education teachers who are mostly tasked with teaching the academic curriculum to SWDs.

Table 1. Participants’ demographics (N = 258)

Characteristic	n	%
Gender
Male	116	45.00
Female	142	55.00
Age
20–30	35	13.60
31–40	89	34.50
41–50	94	36.40
51–60	28	10.90
61+	12	4.70
Highest Qualification
Bachelor’s Degree	175	67.80
Master’s Degree	78	32.20
Doctoral Degree	0	0.00
Current Position
General Educator	213	82.60
Special Educator	23	8.90
Guidance and Counseling	22	8.50
Teaching Experience
1–5 Years	36	14.00
6–10 Years	53	20.50
11–15 Years	67	26.00
16–20 Years	51	19.80
20+ Years	51	19.80
Presence of SWD
Yes	208	80.60
No	50	19.40
Ever Taught SWD
Yes	221	85.70
No	37	14.30

Note. Percentages represent data reported by category and totals.

The results of this study revealed that some participants indicated that they did not have knowledge (Do Not Know) of some items regarding essential transition components and the effectiveness of the school curriculum in assisting SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education. These items were recorded as system missing and analyzed as descriptive data. The findings indicated that the proportion of participants who did not have knowledge of some items ranged from 6.6% to 15.9%, therefore being below the 25% threshold that would point to the need for teachers to engage in professional development activities before taking the survey.

3.2. Teachers’ perceptions of essential transition components and curriculum for SWDs by position

The average mean rating for participants on essential transition components that helped SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education was (M = 3.64), indicating that participants strongly agreed that the stipulated components were critical for the effective transition of SWDs to postsecondary education. Regarding senior secondary curriculum, the average mean rating was 2.18, suggesting that participants somewhat disagreed that the coursework offered in their schools was relevant in helping SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education. Mean ratings for teachers’ perceptions of essential transition components ranged from 3.49 to 3.71 (SDs = 0.49–0.76), with a mean difference of 0.22 considering the maximum and minimum mean rankings (see Table 2). The mean difference and high overall mean score suggest that, overall, teachers strongly agreed that the specified transition components noted in Table 2 were critical for assisting SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education. Regarding teachers’ perceptions on school curriculum, mean ratings ranged from 2.10 to 2.33 (SDs = 1.17–1.25), with a mean difference of 0.23 between the maximum and minimum mean rankings (see Table 3). The mean difference and low overall mean score reflect that, overall, teachers somewhat disagreed that the specified school curriculum was critical for assisting SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education.

Table 2. Overall mean ratings for respondents’ perceptions on transition components (N = 258)

Transition Component	M	SD
A written plan	3.68	0.63
Provision of a variety of activities	3.49	0.69
Specific goals and objectives relating to postsecondary education	3.67	0.68
The strengths, abilities, preferences, interests, and needs of each student	3.71	0.55
Regular assessment leading to postsecondary education	3.68	0.60
Teaching students both academic and functional skills	3.68	0.49
Targeting postsecondary education as the main outcome following completion of secondary education	3.63	0.59
Involvement of students’ parents/families in transition planning and services delivery	3.54	0.76
Collaboration with school staff and external agencies	3.66	0.75

Table 3. Overall mean ratings for respondents’ perceptions on relevance of school curriculum (N = 258)

Subject	M	SD
Mathematics	2.15	1.24
Science	2.10	1.17
English Language	2.33	1.25
Setswana Language	2.15	1.23
Optional Subjects	2.17	1.24

Table 4 exhibits findings from Kruskal–Wallis tests run by teacher position concerning teachers’ perceptions of essential components that assist SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education. These findings are rank ordered and presented based on the overall means, starting with the transition component that had the highest mean value.

Table 4. Kruskal–Wallis analysis for respondents’ perceptions on transition components by teacher position (N = 258)

	GET (n = 213)			SET (n = 23)			GCT (n = 22)
Perception	n	M	SD	n	M	SD	n	M	SD	df	χ^2	w	p
A written plan	213	2.87	0.54	23	3.81	0.82	22	3.35	0.49	2	65.92	0.51	.000
Provision of a variety of activities	213	3.04	0.61	23	3.56	0.83	22	3.24	0.97	2	12.29	0.22	.002
Specific goals and objectives relating to postsecondary education	213	2.52	0.38	23	3.82	1.34	22	3.42	0.51	2	43.69	0.41	.000
The strengths, abilities, preferences, interests, and needs of each student	213	3.71	0.57	23	3.78	0.42	22	3.68	0.48	2	0.53	0.05	.767
Regular assessment leading to postsecondary education	213	3.14	0.55	23	3.74	0.95	22	3.53	0.51	2	12.18	0.05	.002
Teaching students both academic and functional skills	213	3.74	0.46	23	3.64	0.49	22	3.19	0.40	2	26.57	0.32	.000
Targeting postsecondary education as the main outcome following completion of secondary education	213	3.65	0.56	23	3.65	0.49	22	3.33	0.98	2	0.90	0.06	.637
Involvement of students’ parents/families in transition planning and services delivery	213	2.62	0.70	23	3.60	1.19	22	3.59	0.50	2	14.76	0.24	.001
Collaboration with school staff and external agencies	213	3.18	0.70	23	3.72	1.14	22	3.68	0.48	2	9.57	0.19	.008

Note. GET = General Education Teachers, SET = Special Education Teachers, GAC = Guidance and Counselling Teachers

No Significant differences were noted on teachers’ perceptions by position (p > .05) on whether the strengths, abilities, preferences, interests, and needs of each student were an essential component that helped SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education. However, significant differences were noted on teachers’ perceptions by position (p < .001) on whether a written plan was an essential component that helped SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education, with a large effect size.

• A Mann Whitney U post hoc test indicated that special education teachers agreed more than general education teachers that a written plan was an essential component for SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education. (z = −7.52, p < .001).

• Guidance and counseling teachers agreed more than general education teachers on this item (z = −4.89, p < .001).

Teachers’ perceptions also differed significantly by position (p < .05) on whether regular assessment leading to postsecondary education was an essential component that helped SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education, with a small effect size.

• Special education teachers agreed more than general education teachers that regular assessment leading to postsecondary education was an essential component for SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education. (z = −2.88, p < .05).

• Guidance and counseling teachers agreed more than general education teachers on this item (z = −2.32, p < .05).

Moreover, significant differences were noted on teachers’ perceptions by position (p < .001) on whether teaching students both academic and functional skills was an essential component that helped SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education, with a medium effect size.

• General education teachers agreed more than guidance and counseling teachers that teaching students both academic and functional skills was an essential component for SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education. (z = −5.14, p < .001).

• Special education teachers agreed more than guidance and counseling teachers on this item (z = −2.93, p < .05).

There were also significant differences recorded on teachers’ perceptions by position (p < .001) on whether specific goals and objectives relating to postsecondary education were an essential component that helped SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education, with a small effect size.

• A Mann Whitney U post hoc test indicated that special education teachers agreed more than general education teachers that specific goals relating to postsecondary education were an essential component for SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education. (z = −5.93, p < .001).

• Guidance and counseling teachers also agreed more than general education teachers on this item (z = −4.07, p < .001).

Furthermore, significant differences were also noted on teachers’ perceptions by position (p < .05) on whether collaboration with school staff and external agencies was an essential component that helped SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education, with a large effect size.

• A Mann Whitney U post hoc test indicated that special education teachers agreed more than general education teachers that collaboration with school staff and external agencies was an essential component for SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education. (z = −7.52, p < .001).

• Guidance and counseling teachers agreed more than general education teachers on this item (z = −4.89, p < .001).

It is worth noting that no significant differences were noted on teachers’ perceptions by position (p > .05) on whether targeting postsecondary education as the main outcome following completion of secondary education was an essential component that helped SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education. However, there were significant differences noted on teachers’ perceptions by position (p < .05) on whether involvement of students’ parents/families in transition planning and services delivery was an essential component that helped SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education, with a large effect size.

• Special education teachers agreed more than general education teachers that involvement of students’ parents/families in transition planning and services delivery was an essential component for SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education. (z = −3.82, p < .001).

• Guidance and counseling teachers agreed more than general education teachers on this item (z = −.76, p < .05).

• Guidance and counseling teachers agreed more than special education teachers (z = −2.61., p < .001) on the same item.

Also, significant differences were noted on teachers’ perceptions by position (p < .05), on whether provision of a variety of activities was an essential component that helped SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education, with a small effect size.

• A Mann Whitney U follow-up test showed that special education teachers agreed more than general education teachers that provision of a variety of activities was an essential component for SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education. (z = −3.38, p < .05).

Table 5 exhibits findings from Kruskal–Wallis tests run by teacher position concerning teachers’ perceptions on the school curriculum regarding whether courses that were offered helped SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education. The findings are also rank ordered according to overall means and presented beginning with the item that had the highest mean value. Significant differences were recorded on teachers’ perceptions by position (p < .001) on whether English language helped SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education, with a medium effect size.

• A Mann Whitney U post hoc test indicated that general education teachers agreed more than special education teachers that English language helped SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education (z = −4.36, p < .001).

• General education teachers also agreed more than guidance and counseling teachers on this item (z = −3.93, p < .001).

Table 5. Kruskal–Wallis analysis for respondents’ perceptions on relevance of school curriculum by teacher position (N = 258)

	GET (n = 213)			SET (n = 23)			GCT (n = 22)
Perception	n	M	SD	n	M	SD	n	M	SD	df	χ^2	w	p
Mathematics	213	3.14	1.21	23	2.48	1.41	22	1.99	0.77	2	20.14	0.28	.000
Science	213	2.87	1.15	23	1.90	1.01	22	3.00	0.71	2	33.14	0.36	.000
English Language	213	3.83.07	1.18	23	2.07	0.39	22	3.20	0.89	2	51.45	0.45	.000
Setswana Language	213	3.48	1.14	23	1.87	0.73	22	3.16	0.90	2	46.48	0.42	.000
Optional Subjects	213	3.40	1.18	23	2.50	1.34	22	1.99	0.88	2	25.75	0.32	.000

Note. GET = General Education Teachers, SET = Special Education Teachers, GAC = Guidance and Counselling Teachers

Significant differences were also found on teachers’ perceptions by position (p < .001) on whether optional subjects helped SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education, with a medium effect size.

• A Mann Whitney U post hoc test indicated that general education teachers agreed more than guidance and counseling teachers that optional subjects helped SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education (z = −2.41, p < .05).

Again, there were significant differences noted on teachers’ perceptions by position (p < .001) on whether mathematics helped SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education, with a small effect size.

• A Mann Whitney U post hoc test indicated that general education teachers agreed more than guidance and counseling teachers that mathematics helped SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education (z = −4.36, p < .001).

Furthermore, significant differences were found on teachers’ perceptions by position (p < .001) on whether the Setswana language helped SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education, with a medium effect size.

• General education teachers agreed more than special education teachers that the Setswana language helped SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education (z = −5.75, p < .001).

• General education teachers also agreed more than guidance and counseling teachers on this item (z = −4.40, p < .001).

Finally, significant differences were recorded on teachers’ perceptions by position (p < .001) on whether science helped SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education, with a medium effect size.

• General education teachers agreed more than special education teachers that science helped SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education (z = −4.29, p < .001). [Table 5 near here]

4. Discussion

The researchers found that general education teachers, special education teachers, and guidance and counseling teachers showed positive perceptions on the majority of transition planning components that were examined in this study. For example, the involvement of students’ parents and families in transition planning and services delivery as well as collaboration with school staff and external agencies were identified as essential components that helped SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education. These results are in line with Rowe et al. (2015) and Sprunger et al. (2018) who argued that the ability of teachers to comprehend and apprehend transition procedures and principles lies in successful communication and cooperative efforts that connect students, parents/families, and external agencies. Moreover, teachers’ establishment of significant partnerships with families and collaboration with external entities including comprehension of essential elements of interagency collaboration necessitate the enhancement of students’ postsecondary outcomes. Nonetheless, family participation is unsatisfactory in Botswana secondary schools (Ookeditse, 2018) despite most secondary students being below the age of majority (18 years), thus lacking the full legal capacity to make meaningful individualistic decisions and actions.

Most participants in the study demonstrated positive perceptions that a written plan was essential for SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education. The written plan is the basis for reaching a student’s distinct needs, consistent with transition literature that emphasizes planning that focuses on a student’s unique needs. It should be noted that student-focused planning includes the participation of a student in an IEP, a complete and specific course of study, distinct and measurable goals, training SWDs to acquire essential transition planning skills, together with the application of structured and age-appropriate transition evaluations (Morningstar & Mazzotti, 2014). Moreover, a well-written IEP captures among others students’ academic and postsecondary goals. Unfortunately, SWDs in Botswana have limited involvement on the development of the academic curriculum and transition planning (Ookeditse, 2018). Regarding determining the curriculum and transition program needed to reach post-secondary schools, there is a need for SWDs to be at the center of the learning process. Student focused planning should result in student focused learning which entails allowing SWDs to decide on what materials to learn and how to learn without disregarding students’ assessments, self-determination, and postsecondary goals. Thus, students’ needs, abilities, interests, and preferences should drive their secondary education.

The results of this study also indicated that secondary educators collectively demonstrated positive perceptions towards the teaching of academic and functional skills. In line with this finding, research has emphasized the need for SWDs to be assessed and trained in functional, academic, interpersonal, and employment skills to prepare them to defeat adult life threats (Curry & Jones, 2014; Kohler, 1996). Nonetheless, the significance of specific academic courses in helping SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education was not established in the study as teachers expressed negative perceptions that secondary academic courses offered did not facilitate SWDs successful transition to postsecondary education. The majority of teachers disagreed that the school curriculum prepared students for postsecondary education, thereby suggesting that course work at the secondary school level was somehow deficient in assisting SWDs to transition to institutions of higher education. A possible explanation for this observation is the lower rates of SWDS transition to postsecondary education compared to their peers without disabilities. For example, only 4.0% of SWDs were able to complete senior secondary education successfully against more than 80% of peers without disabilities (Statistics Botswana, 2018). In addition, although this study did not establish the extent to which academic goals were linked to transition goals, Scott and Puglia (2018) noted the importance of linking academic and transition goals for including SWDs in the general curriculum. It is unknown from the current study’s findings what component of the secondary curriculum is insufficient or what teachers are missing in enhancing the curriculum.

Secondary education teachers expressed positive views that the strengths, abilities, preferences, interests, and needs of SWDs should be incorporated in the transition planning and programming. This is a notable finding because a major responsibility of educators entails empowering students, inclusive of those with exceptionalities, to become independent and self-reliant (Rubin & Roessler, 2008). Research has demonstrated that linking components of transition planning with career development that considers a student’s priorities and strengths, sufficient training, together with strong and supportive relationships results in positive postsecondary outcomes (Morgan et al., 2014; Morningstar et al., 2010).

4.1. Differences in teachers’ perceptions of essential transition components for SWDs

Generally, participants held mixed views on the influence of teacher position on transition components. Significant differences were recorded on most transition components and curriculum based on position. The findings that special education teachers and guidance and counselling teachers agreed more than general education teachers that: (a) a written plan; (b) specific goals and objectives relating to postsecondary education; (c) regular assessment leading to postsecondary education; (d) involvement of students’ parents/families in transition planning and services delivery; and (e) collaboration with school staff and external agencies were essential components for SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education are meaningful. Literature has pinpointed the need for special education teachers to assume a leading role in the delivery of transition services and supports for SWDs. Therefore, it is worthwhile for special education teachers to have positive perceptions about the transition planning process compared to other educators if they are to spearhead transition planning and programming effectively. However, insufficient cooperative and joint efforts between special educators and other professionals have been observed in Botswana despite the expectation for special education teachers to coordinate education programs for SWDs (Dart, 2007; Dart et al., 2002; Kisanji, 2003). This may help to explain the disparity regarding teachers’ transition perceptions as special educators may comprehend transition approaches and principles distinctly from general educators.

It is also interesting that special education teachers agreed more than general education teachers that provision of a variety of activities was an essential component for SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education. Special education teachers are especially trained to support the educational needs of SWDs through differentiation and use of evidence-based teaching strategies, thus considering individual differences in introducing activities that help each individual student to learn requisite skills and make reasonable educational progress (Scheeler et al., 2016). In addition, it is worth noting that general education teachers and special education teachers agreed more than guidance and counseling teachers that teaching students both academic and functional skills was an essential component for SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education. A possible explanation to varying teachers’ views on this transition component may be the distinct roles that the three teacher groups are expected to play. In the context of Botswana, a major role of general education teachers within general education settings is to deliver educational instructions to all students regarding the core academic curriculum and implement suitable teaching approaches to equip learners with requisite academic skills. In contrast, special education teachers are assigned to provide reasonable accommodations and make appropriate educational modifications for SWDs along with establishing collaborative relationships with general education teachers to address students’ special needs. Guidance and counseling educators are required to establish and maintain collaborative alliances with other educators as well as with external agencies to promote delivery of suitable educational and related services to SWDs. Hence, the direct interaction of general education teachers and special education teachers in equipping students with academic and functional skills may have contributed significantly to this result.

The results that no significant differences were noted on teachers’ perceptions by position on whether the strengths, abilities, preferences, interests, and needs of each student as well as that targeting postsecondary education as the main outcome following completion of secondary education were an essential component that helped SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education are encouraging. Although special education teachers are usually expected to coordinate the transition process, they must work with other teachers in the delivery of transition services. This calls for a minimization of the transition knowledge disparity among the various kinds of teachers. The more the transition knowledge and comprehension gap among teachers is reduced, the more they are likely to form meaningful partnerships to address students’ transition needs, thereby leading to positive postsecondary outcomes (Van et al., 2018). Regarding most transition components, the perceptions of special education teachers and guidance and counselling teachers did not vary significantly. This is worth mentioning as literature has categorically noted the significance of special educators and counsellors in the transition planning and programming for SWDs. For instance, special education training equips teachers with essential expertise and competencies to enable them to coordinate the transition process successfully (Clark, 2007; Rowe et al., 2015). Likewise, counselors have been identified as possessing the necessary knowledge and competencies to empower SWDs to become self-sufficient and independent (Rubin & Roessler, 2008)—a primary purpose of transition. Counselors and special educators are service professionals with several commonalities including among others the ability to empower students to become self-reliant and independent (Ookeditse, 2018). The absence of significant differences between special educators and counselling teachers for most items regarding components for assisting SWDs to effectively transition to postsecondary education may attest to commonalities in the work done by these professionals.

4.2. Differences in teachers’ perceptions of curriculum relevance for SWDs

Although teachers collectively disagreed that academic coursework offered in schools helped SWDs to transition to postsecondary education successfully, general education teachers expressed an opposite view on both core and optional courses offered. Given the role of general education teachers of providing instruction in the academic curriculum and the distinct roles of other teachers, the diverse views on the curriculum may not be surprising. Ookeditse (2018) noted that the distinct roles of general education teachers, special education teachers, and counseling teachers partly contributed to the differences in these teachers’ perceptions about transition planning as well as inconsistent transition understanding and comprehension. In Botswana, the role of general education teachers in senior secondary schools primarily entails curriculum content delivery to students with and without disabilities. General education teachers also ensure that students’ academic goals are met. Special education teachers mainly provide appropriate accommodations to give SWDs access to the curriculum content so that they have equal opportunities to participate and succeed, including spearheading the transition process. Pertaining to special education and counseling teachers’ perceptions about languages, math, science, and other courses, it may be that these teachers failed to clearly separate SWDs’ academic performance from the importance of academic coursework in postsecondary transition. Teachers’ negative responses may have been influenced by the literature suggesting that SWDs have an increased probability of exhibiting lower academic performance and attaining limited preparedness for postsecondary education, particularly in math and science-related courses (Stodden et al., 2001). Moreover, Butler (2021) argued that differences in transition perceptions of special educators and general educators partly emanate from poor collaboration between these teachers, thereby maintaining the disparity of transition knowledge between the two teacher groups. Along the same vein, when examining the views of special educators, counselors, and parents in a Northwest state regarding transition planning for youths with cognitive disabilities, Almuaqel (2006) noted poor communication between special educators and counselors. The researcher further recommended the promotion of increased communication channels between transition planning members to attain a common understanding of the transition process.

4.3. Limitations

The study sample comprised of varying numbers of participants per position group. Even though the study entailed a considerable number of 258 participants, in light of the distinct group sizes, there may be a reduction of power that may perhaps influence the extent to which the study results may be generalized. Additionally, the researchers selected participants utilizing purposive and census sampling as this was an exploratory study. Nevertheless, random sampling across the ten education regions in the country would be more appropriate for future research. This would increase the generalizability of findings to the whole population of senior secondary teachers in Botswana. It should be noted that the study did not rely on qualitative data but rather, quantitative research methods were used to collect data. Thus, it was not easy to deduce meaningful justifications for discovered trends. Instead, possible justifications for such trends were formulated relying on available research, including consideration of ongoing transition practices across schools. According to Klingner and Boardman (2011), mixed methods research is worth utilizing given that it allows for gathering qualitative information that helps to explain notable trends emanating from quantitative data. Consequently, this improves the meaningfulness and quality of results for readers. Finally, it is unknown how SWDs who are the recipients of transition services and administrators who are responsible for managing schools perceive components of the transition and secondary school curriculum towards helping SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education. This is because no data were gathered from these groups.

5. Conclusion

5.1. Transition components application

Participants demonstrated positive perceptions on components that are essential for helping SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education. Teachers’ positive transition perceptions are crucial for effective implementation of transition practices. Butler (2021) noted the interconnected relationship between teachers’ transition perceptions and application, arguing that unless teachers have positive views about transition planning, it is difficult to implement what they lack confidence in. Even though participants reported positive perceptions on the importance of stipulated transition components supporting available literature, it remains undetermined the degree of teachers’ application of these components in secondary schools. Given the distinct perceptions of participants by position on transition components and school curriculum in helping SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education, it is essential that secondary schools work hard to devise strategies for minimizing the current gap in teachers’ transition perceptions. This gap relates to significant disparities and lack of consistency on teachers’ opinions of the necessity of transition components and relevance of the secondary school curriculum in helping SWDs to transition successfully to postsecondary education. Hence, there is a necessity for secondary schools to (a) create opportunities for teachers to engage in professional development activities aimed at improving transition service provision to SWDs; (b) establish and maintain strategic alliances within and outside schools that enhance the implementation of transition practices; and (c) generate transition approaches that link students’ unique academic goals to suitable non-academic competencies. Teachers’ professional development programs must be geared towards diminishing differences in their perceptions based on position to ensure that at any time, teachers demonstrate positive views since they form a firm foundation for effective transition to postsecondary environments.

5.2. Transition policy/law and advocacy

It is imperative that secondary school teachers work collaboratively to formulate policy and advocacy approaches that are consistent with revamping current school practices in line with students’ programs of study and IEPs. Policy should give clear direction on how to train students who are responsive to current economic needs, with emphasis on equipping students with functional and vocational skills. In addition, advocacy efforts need to focus more towards pursuing the government to make IEPs mandatory documents for SWDs. Also, the time is now that secondary schools hire and retain additional special educators and counseling teachers to minimise the existing dominance of general educators and permit specialist teachers to utilise their knowledge and skills to enhance students’ attainment of desired transition outcomes with evidently specified roles.

The non-existence of a legal framework on transition in Botswana makes it especially difficult for schools to have clear-cut guidelines and measures in place that schools are lawfully forced to follow in the quest to improve postsecondary outcomes for SWDs. A potential legal framework on transition in Botswana should include critical areas such as clear-cut guidelines for developing and implementing an IEP, transition goals and objectives, transition services, parents’ roles in transition, and transition services’ funding. A transition law is important for protecting SWDs from discrimination across all life domains, as well as committing appropriate and adequate resources to support individuals with disabilities to have successful post-school outcomes. In the interim, it would be beneficial for educational programs offered in institutions of higher learning to offer well-rounded transition courses for pre-service secondary teachers.

5.3. Collaboration

As discussed, professional development activities are essential for training in-service teachers to acquire the necessary knowledge and competencies to enhance the smooth transition of SWDs to postsecondary settings. Thus, structured and cordial relations are key between schools, SWDs and their families, non-governmental entities, state-owned enterprises, private entities, government ministries, advocacy groups for people living with disabilities, and all relevant stakeholders in Botswana to establish that SWDs are ready to begin and complete postsecondary education successfully. This helps to ensure that individuals with disabilities ultimately enter the labor market, contribute meaningfully to society, as well as maintain independent and purposeful lives. The ratification exercise of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPWD) on 12 July 2021, is a step in the right direction. It also prompts the need for the National Transformation Agenda to capture inclusion as a priority area, to ensure that issues surrounding the needs of people with disabilities across all life domains from birth through the lifespan are addressed amicably. The ratification process of the UNCRPWD is to be followed by collaborative efforts between various stakeholders to develop appropriate laws to protect the rights of individuals with disabilities across all spheres of life. Thus, it is after the ratification process that the government of Botswana might speed up developing and implementing a transition legal framework for SWDs in compliance with the recently signed United Nations convention. Nonetheless, in light of the adverse economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, government attempts to finance disability issues may be futile. Given the need to resuscitate the economy, the government of Botswana has since set new priorities such as reforming the public service, accelerating digitalization, and value-chain development, with no particular reference to special education and disability issues.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Supplementary material

Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2023.2292833.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Goitse B. Ookeditse

Goitse Ookeditse is a lecturer in the Department of Educational Foundations (EDF) at the University of Botswana. He has over10 years of experience in higher education. His work as a lecturer offers him immense satisfaction and great happiness. Reflecting on the uneasy moments with his students specializing in visual impairment teaches him how to manage difficult and challenging situations in life. His research interests include career development and transition planning and programming for students with disabilities as well as orientation and mobility programs for individuals with visual impairments. He also serves in various committees in the University of Botswana and in different organizations and capacities in the community concerning disability issues.

Neo J. Molemane

Neo Molemane is a special education graduate of the University of Botswana. He holds a Bachelor of Education (Special Education), with majors in mathematics and visual impairment. As a student, he participated in functional and learning media assessments of students with visual impairment and worked alongside some of his lecturers and as a supplementary instruction leader in mathematics for social science courses. He also participated in teaching practice in a primary school with a special unit for students with visual impairment. These experiences provided him with insights of working with students with disabilities and diverse learning abilities. He is currently planning to apply for a graduate program to further his knowledge in the field of special education and pursue a career in research.