Results of attending selective junior high schools on educational attainment and standard of living: a social survey in Japan

Abstract

Some families opt not to enroll their children in free public junior high schools, choosing instead those requiring rigorous entrance examinations. Attending selective junior high schools facilitates better education, employment, and higher salaries. To evaluate the significance of junior high school entrance examinations, this study investigated whether attending selective junior high schools was associated with higher educational attainment, perceived standard of living, and personal income. An online survey was conducted with 450 young Japanese individuals aged 25–39. Overall, we found that attending selective junior high schools contributes to a higher standard of living as well as to obtaining higher education; however, its effect on increasing income was found only among women, which might be influenced by sociocultural factors such as prevalence of singlehood and working style in Japan. Additionally, the differences between the effects of attending selective junior high schools and those of higher educational attainment were discussed.

Keywords:

• Entrance exams
• education
• social class
• gender

Reviewing editor:

• Sammy King Fai Hui, The Education University of Hong Kong, HONG KONG

Subjects:

• Middle School Education
• School Psychology
• Sociology of Education

Introduction

In Japan, nine years of elementary and junior high school education is compulsory, and students can attend public schools freely in various regions without any conditions. However, some families opt for junior high school entrance examinations and send their children to private or national junior high schools (Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2022). There are regional differences in the number of children who undergo these examinations. Junior high school entrance examinations are more common in the Tokyo metropolitan area and Kansai region. Despite the declining birth rate, the number of children undergoing junior high school entrance examinations has been increasing annually. In 2023, the number of applicants in the Tokyo metropolitan area increased for the ninth consecutive year, and the rate rose to 17.9% (Kakizaki, 2023).

Why do some families choose junior high school entrance examinations? Attending selective junior high schools facilitates better education, jobs, and higher salaries (e.g., Higuchi, 2009; Kataoka, 2009; Nishimaru, 2008; Ohashi et al., 2023; Yano, 2021). Some studies in Japan have shown that those who attended private and national junior high schools had more years of education than those who attended public junior high schools (Nishimaru, 2008; Mori, 2017); however, no study has been conducted on the relationship between socioeconomic status in adulthood and the type of junior high school attended. Although some studies have been conducted in the UK and Europe (e.g., Borghans et al., 2019; Butler et al., 2020), data from Japan are necessary, as different countries have different educational systems and employment practices. In Japan, the custom of staying with a company until retirement after graduating from university or high school remains strong and school history inevitably influences a person’s first job. Additionally, returning to a university after entering the workforce is uncommon. This study investigated whether attending selective junior high schools is associated with ‘good results’, such as, higher educational attainment, perceived standard of living, and personal income.

Educational system in Japan

After World War II, Japan adopted a model similar to that of the United States, consisting of six years of elementary school, three years of junior high school, three years of high school, and four years of university commencing at six years of age. Compulsory education spans nine years; however, more than 95% of Japanese children attend high school (Japan Cabinet Office, 2021a).

Every elementary school graduate can attend a public junior high school near their home. Those who choose to attend private or national junior high schools are a minority in the country (8.7%) but not as rare in some areas such as Tokyo Prefecture (26.5%; Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2022). Public junior high schools are coeducational; however, some private and national junior high schools are single-sex schools. Although the majority of high school students (65.0%) are enrolled in public high schools, the percentage of high school students in private schools (34.7%) is higher than those in elementary and junior high schools (those who attend national high school are quite few, 0.27%). Universities in Japan are overwhelmingly private (622 out of 810 are private universities), and in terms of the number of students enrolled, private university students are in the majority (74.0%).

Reasons why junior high school entrance examinations are preferred

Japan is not the only country where children under the age of 12 must decide on their course of study. For example, in Germany, children decide their course of study by the age of 10, and in England, tests for decision-making start from 5^th grade. A major reason for choosing junior high school entrance examinations is the high level of academic achievement in later life (Butler et al., 2020; Clark, 2010; Clark & Del Bono, 2016). Studies have been conducted in the UK and eastern USA (Boston and New York, respectively) to examine the effects and impacts of selective schooling, in which the entrance exam determines the junior high school or high school in which a child is enrolled (e.g. Butler et al., 2020; Jerrim & Sims, 2020). In some regions in England, a small number of children are selected based on the results of an examination at age 11 to enter ‘middle school’. In England, approximately 95% of all children go to secondary school, while the rest go to middle school (Department of Education, 2017). Butler et al. (2020) found that those who attended middle school had a higher likelihood of obtaining university degrees and having better health. Notably, they have a more advantageous economic background and higher IQ. However, it is unclear whether selective schooling improves academic achievement or health conditions.

Moreover, high-achieving peers positively influence cognitive skills and outcomes later in life (Borghans et al., 2019). A recent study by Bertoni and Nisticò (2023) demonstrated that being in the company of highly capable peers can have a positive impact on learning outcomes, even though it may lower students’ academic self-concept as a result of a reduced ordinal ability rank.

In Japan, private and national junior high schools expect higher levels of education than public junior high schools (Higuchi, 2009; Nishimaru, 2008; Ohashi et al., 2023). Additionally, children who undergo a more rigorous admission process are expected to have the advantage of having friends of higher mental age because of the screening process of taking an entrance examination (Ohashi et al., 2023; Yano, 2021). In addition, Kakizaki (2023) mentioned the opinions of parents who enrolled their children in selective junior high school entrance examinations and felt not only that they were beneficial but also that private schools handled the COVID-19 pandemic well.

In the UK, which has a selective middle school system, those who attend selective middle schools perform better academically later in life (Butler et al., 2020). However, recent studies in the UK, Germany and USA have shown that such a separate effect is small or absent (Abdulkadiroğlu et al., 2014; Dustmann et al., 2017; Gorard & Siddiqui, 2018; Jerrim & Sims, 2020). Gorard and Siddiqui (2018) found that the different effects of education in selective and non-selective education in the UK are smaller today than in the past, and argued that the change is presumably due to the penetration of higher education and improvements in educational skills. That is, it became difficult to differentiate between selective and non-selective schools because of the equivalent presence of teachers who were good at teaching. Additionally, psychological problems have been reported in students who participate in entrance exams for selective schools and fail (low self-esteem, loss of self-confidence, decreased well-being, etc.; Bertoni & Nisticò, 2023). Moreover, comparing high reference points with others shows that self-esteem in terms of academic performance may decrease when students attend middle school (Marsh & Parker, 1984).

Despite the belief that education increases personal income, Clark and Del Bono (2016) concluded from their longitudinal study that attending elite schools did not have an impact on the labor market, except for women’s income, which caused men and women to complete approximately one additional year of full-time education. They argued that ‘selective schooling helped both high-ability students stretched by elite schooling and lower-ability students properly catered to by non-elite schooling’. Other studies show that college outcomes are not affected by whether students have access to Advanced Placement courses (Klopfenstein, 2004; Jackson, 2010).

This study

In Japan, several studies have shown a positive relationship between the highest educational attainment or university level, and income or occupational status. This is in line with both the human capital theory (Becker, 1962) and signaling theory (Spence, 1973). The former suggests that higher education leads to greater individual productivity and, hence, higher income, whereas the latter asserts that a high level of education signals high ability and potential for obtaining high-income jobs. Research has shown that those who graduated from universities with higher entrance difficulties tend to have higher rates of success in promotion to managerial positions or higher positions in listed companies and public offices (Ishikawa, 1994) and have higher incomes (Iwamura, 1996). Furthermore, income varies depending on the highest educational attainment, with particularly large differences between graduate school and the rest; these differences widen with age (Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, 2022; Tachibanaki & Matsuura, 2009).

However, it has not yet been confirmed whether the same effect exists for entrance examinations in earlier stages. Studies have been conducted in the UK and the USA on this topic. However, in the context of Japan’s unique educational and labor environment, there needs to be focused studies that examine whether those who enter junior high schools requiring an entrance exam are more likely to attain higher educational attainment and social status than those who do not.

We compared the highest educational attainment, perceived standard of living, and personal income of those who attended selective junior high schools with those of the general Japanese population. Surveys conducted by public institutions after September 2020 were used for comparison because of the possibility of changes in living conditions due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Hypothesis

Our hypothesis was as follows: Those attending junior high schools requiring an entrance exam are more likely to attain higher education and achieve higher social status than those who do not.

Although there are some private elementary schools in Japan, this study focuses on junior high school entrance examinations. This is because selective elementary schools are much rarer (1.92%) than selective junior high schools in Japan (8.65%, Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2022).

Method

Overview

An online survey was conducted among Japanese monitors of a research firm in mid-December 2022. The study was conducted with the approval of the Research Ethics Committee of the first authors’ university (No. 2022-17). At the beginning of the survey, it was explained to participants that responses were voluntary, their anonymity was ensured, and that the results would be published in a statistically analyzed form, with the name of the survey administrator clearly stated; those who agreed to these statements responded to the survey.

To prevent inauthentic responses (Krosnick, 1991), the following instructional manipulation check was included in the middle of the questionnaire: ‘This question is designed to check how attentive you are to the survey. We checked for people who skipped over some of the questions’, followed by ‘Which of the following words indicate a number?’ They were allowed to choose from four options, each consisting of three letters. Those who inappropriately answered this question were excluded from the firm’s data.

Participants

Participants were selected from a pool of Japanese research firms. The planned sample size was 600, with 100 respondents from each of the following age groups for each gender: 25-29, 30-34, and 35-39. The eligibility criteria for inclusion in this study were being 25-39 years old, living in the Tokyo metropolitan area (Tokyo and three prefectures) or the Kansai region (Osaka, Kyoto, and Hyogo prefectures), having no children aged 12 years or older, and having taken junior high school entrance exams. This setting was selected for two reasons. First, completion of education allowed us to obtain individual outcome data on income and perceived standard of living. Second, the children not undergoing the junior high school entrance exam ensured that there was no confusion between respondent’s experiences and those of their children. The reason for limiting the region of residence was that in these seven prefectures, for more than 30 years, a relatively large number of people had been taking junior high school entrance exams.

A total of 631 responses were received, of which we excluded 2 responses of ‘no’ or ‘not particularly’) to an open-ended question about the impact of taking the junior high school entrance exam (not analyzed in this paper) and 14 responses of ‘absent’ for both parents to the question about parental support. Furthermore, a total of 75 responses of ‘don’t know’ or ‘nothing’ and ‘A, B, C’ or other meaningless words and phrases about words associated with ‘entrance examinations’ (free-response type, not analyzed in this paper), were excluded from the analysis because they did not answer the survey seriously. Furthermore, 88 respondents who took the junior high school entrance examination but entered public junior high schools were excluded from the analysis. Therefore, the total number of participants analyzed was 450 (205 men and 245 women, mean age 32.26 ± 4.32 years).

Survey items

• Demographic items:

  Participants were asked about their gender, age, area of residence, marital status, occupation, and number of siblings.

• Experience of taking junior high school entrance examinations:

  First, we asked participants when they started attending cram school to prepare for junior high school entrance examinations (month and grade). Next, we asked about their marks in the upper grades of elementary school separately for schools and cram schools. Responses were recorded on a 7-point scale ranging from very high (1) to very low (7). We then asked them about the number of junior high schools to which they had applied. The choices ranged from ‘1’ to ‘more than 9’. For the question ‘What were the results of your junior high school entrance examinations?’ the responses were ‘Passed my first choice’, ‘Passed my second or lower choice’, or ‘Did not pass’. We asked for the type of the junior high school they attended, from ‘national’, ‘prefectural (public integrated junior and senior high school)’, ‘private’, or ‘public’.

• Perceived support from parents:

  We asked, ‘Were your parents enthusiastic about supporting you in studying for your entrance examinations?’ and requested responses from each parent on a 5-point scale ranging from very (5) to 1 (not at all). Additionally, we asked about the parents’ experiences of taking junior high school entrance examinations. The options were yes (1), only the father (2), only the mother (3), and neither (4). The absence of either parameter was considered as a missing value situation.

• Experience of entrance examinations:

  We asked them to select all the entrance examinations they had taken from the following multiple-choice options: yes (written examinations), yes (interviews), yes (other practical skills), and no experience with any of the entrance examinations: elementary, junior high school, high school, or university. 　

• Educational background:

  The respondents were asked, ‘What is your highest educational attainment?’ They chose from junior high school, high school, vocational school, technical college, junior college, university, graduate school, and others. To perform the analysis, we assigned numerical values of 1 for junior high school; 2 for high school; 3 for vocational school, technical college, or junior college; 4 for university; and 5 for graduate school. Others were considered difficult to judge and treated as missing values.

  In addition, those with university degrees were asked about the scale of difficulty in admission into their undergraduate schools. In Japan, the scale of difficulty in being admitted to school is expressed in the form of a score with a high probability of success in a normal distribution, with a mean score of 50 and a standard deviation of 10. In this study, an 8-point scale was used: score 39 or below (1), 40-44 (2), 45-49 (3), 50-54 (4), 55-59 (5), 60-64 (6), 65-69 (7), and 70 or above (8). 　

• Perceived standard of living:

  We asked, ‘How would you describe your standard of living as perceived by the general population? ‘on a 5-point scale: high (1), higher-middle (2), middle (3), lower-middle (4), and low (5). The option ‘don’t know (9)’ was provided and treated as a missing value.

• Personal income:

  We asked, ’How much money did you earn in the past year? Please indicate amounts before taxes and other deductions’. The respondents chose from the following categories: less than one million yen, one million yen, two million yen, three million yen, four million yen, five million yen, six million yen, seven million yen, eight million yen, nine million yen, 10 million yen, 11 million yen to 15 million yen, 16 million yen to 20 million yen, 21 million yen to 25 million yen, 26 million yen, and over 26 million yen.

Data analysis

Descriptive and inferential statistical approaches were used for data analysis. Descriptive statistics were computed to identify the characteristics of the sample (type of junior high school attended, rate of cram school attendance, grades at the time, and current occupation). Subsequently, we conducted a comparative examination of the present dataset and publicly administered surveys conducted after autumn 2020. This comparison specifically focused on variables such as the highest level of education attained, current annual income, present perceived standard of living, and the highest level of education attained by the participants’ parents. The investigation into the highest education level and personal income involved a secondary analysis based on data sourced from the ‘Survey on the Impact of the Spread of New Coronavirus Infections from the Perspective of Gender Equality’ (Japan Cabinet Office, 2021b). For the remaining variables, we leveraged data from the ‘October 2022 Public Opinion Survey on National Life’ conducted by the Japan Cabinet Office (2023). Statistical inference in the form of χ² tests was employed, as the variables under consideration were not of a quantitative nature. IBM SPSS version 27 was used for data analysis.

Results

Face items

Table 1 summarizes the junior high schools that respondents eventually entered by gender. The results showed that most of the students attended private middle schools. There were no differences in the type of junior high school by gender (χ²₍₁₎ = 3.56, V = .09, p = .17).

Table 1. Attributes of respondents (n and %).

	Junior high school they attended			Total
Gender	National	Prefectural	Private
Men	30	17	158	205
	(14.6)	(8.3)	(77.1)	(100.0)
Women	22	20	203	245
	(9.0)	(8.2)	(82.9)	(100.0)
Total	52	37	361	450
	(11.6)	(8.2)	(80.2)	(100.0)

One sibling was the most common (233, 43.3%), with zero (120, 22.3%) and two (88, 16.36%) moderately common. A small number of three (6, 1.1%), four (2, 0.4%), and six (1, 0.2%) were mentioned, with a mean number of siblings of 0.98 ± 0.78.

The most common current occupation for both men and women was company employees (general employees) (Table 2). Civil servants and other public employees were the next most common occupations for men, and housewives were the next most common occupation for women.

Table 2. Current occupation.

	Gender				Total
Occupation	Men		Women
Company employee (general employee)	138	(67.3)	117	(47.8)	255	(56.7)
Company employee (management position)	8	(3.9)	4	(1.6)	12	(2.7)
Company management (executives and board members)	6	(2.9)	1	(0.4)	7	(1.6)
Civil servants, teachers, and NPO employees	14	(6.8)	10	(4.1)	24	(5.3)
Temporary and contract employees	4	(2.0)	14	(5.7)	18	(4.0)
Self-employed (commercial and industrial services)	5	(2.4)	3	(1.2)	8	(1.8)
SOHO	1	(0.5)	3	(1.2)	4	(0.9)
Professionals (lawyers, accountants, medical professionals)	6	(2.9)	14	(5.7)	20	(4.4)
Part-time job	8	(3.9)	28	(11.4)	36	(8.0)
Housemaker	0	(0.0)	38	(15.5)	38	(8.4)
Student	2	(1.0)	2	(0.8)	4	(0.9)
Unemployed	9	(4.4)	5	(2.0)	14	(3.1)
Other	4	(2.0)	6	(2.4)	10	(2.2)
Total	205	(100.0)	245	(100.0)	450	(100.0)

Note. An NPO is an abbreviation for a nonprofit organization, a company or organization’s sole purpose of which is to do good for others without making a profit. SOHO is a working style that uses a small office or home as the workplace.

Regarding marital status, most respondents were never married (n = 278, 61.8%), 164 (36.4%) were married, and eight (1.8%) were divorced. A gender difference in marital status was found (χ²₍₂₎ = 17.53, V = .20, p < .001). Residual analysis showed that significantly more men were unmarried and more women were married (p < .001).

Since a secondary analysis of the ‘Survey on the Impact of the Spread of New Coronavirus Infections from a Gender Equality Perspective’ (Japan Cabinet Office, 2021b) was available, we compared our survey with this one. The survey was conducted between November and December 2020 using an online survey method and received responses from 6,679 people in their 20s and 60s. Even though data on spouses and other family members were collected in that survey, we excluded 27 respondents aged 25-39 with children aged 12 or older and 1050 respondents living outside the area covered by this survey from their votes (1978 respondents), leaving 901 respondents (52.7% of whom were women) for the present analysis. The results showed that the unmarried rate in the Japan Cabinet Office (2021b) was 39.9% for men and 31.0% for women, with significantly higher unmarried rates in our study for both genders (men χ²₍₂₎ = 57.72, V = .30, p < .001; women χ²₍₂₎ = 33.39, V = .22, p < .001).

Preparation for junior high school entrance exam

The majority of the respondents (n = 340) had attended cram schools for junior high school entrance exams (75.6%), and 110 respondents had not (24.4%). The grade in which they began attending cram school was M = 4.25 (SD = 1.13). There was no gender difference in the proportion who had attended the cram school for junior high school entrance exams (χ²₍₁₎ = 1.16, V = .05, p = .282), with 73.2% of men and 77.6% of women doing so.

There was a significant difference in the number of junior high schools attended (t(4287.69) = 8.98, d = 0.79, p < .001, using Welch’s correction), depending on whether the students attended a cram school. The cram school group (M = 2.39, SD = 1.30) took more junior high school entrance exams (M = 1.42, SD = 0.80) than did the non-cram school group. Additionally, significant differences were observed in the results of the exams (χ²₍₂₎ = 40.25, V = .30, p < .001). Residual analysis showed no significant difference in the percentage of those who passed the exam of their first choice (67.3% in the cram school group and 75.5% in the non-cram school group); however, the percentage of those who passed with their second choice or lower was significantly higher in the cram school group (29.1% in the cram school group and 7.3% in the non-cram school group). The percentage of those who failed was significantly higher in the non-cram school group (3.5% in the cram school group and 17.3% in the non-cram school group). Additionally, there was a significant difference according to parental experience in taking junior high school entrance exams (χ²₍₃₎ = 15.58, V = .19, p = .001). The cram school rate was lower when both parents had taken junior high school entrance exams (p = .007) and higher when only the mother had taken the exams (p = .004). The mean starting grade for cram school was 4.26 ± 1.13.

Parents’ perceived support when preparing for the junior high school entrance exam was measured using a 5-point scale. The mean for fathers was 3.33 ± 1.28, slightly lower than that for mothers at 4.00 ± 1.02. According to the t-test, this difference is significant (t(428) = 11.27, d = 0.58, p < .001). There was a moderate positive correlation between support from fathers and support from mothers (r(427) = .44, p < .001). The survey also asked whether parents had any experience with junior high school entrance examinations. The results showed that ‘neither’ was the majority (n = 350, 65.06%), followed by ‘both yes’ (n = 102, 18.96%). Some answered ‘only father yes’ (n = 39, 7.25%) and ‘only mother yes’ (n = 47, 8.74%).

Overall, most respondents perceived their academic performance in elementary school as good. The mean was 2.72 ± 1.50, with the top three groups accounting for 70.9% (7-point scale). However, their performance on the cram school and mock exams showed a normal distribution, with a mean value of 3.44 ± 1.44.

Educational attainment

In the following sections, we compare those who attended junior high schools requiring an entrance exam (our survey) to the general sample. First, we analyzed the highest level of educational attainment (Table 3). Among those who went to selective junior high schools, our survey majority had attended university (n = 335, 74.4%), followed by graduate school (n = 46, 10.2%). In other words, university graduates or higher accounted for 84.7% of the total, with junior high school (n = 4, 0.9%); high school (n = 29, 6.4%); and vocational school, technical college, and junior college (n = 36, 8%) in the minority.

Table 3. Comparison of the highest educational attainment by gender: Our results vs Japan Cabinet Office data.

	Japan Cabinet Office (2021b)		Our survey
	Men	Women	Men	Women
Junior high school/high school	67	102	22	11
	(15.7)	(21.5)	(10.7)	(4.5)
Junior college, vocational school, or technical school	56	149	10	26
	(13.1)	(31.4)	(4.9)	(10.6)
University	262	217	146	189
	(61.5)	(45.7)	(71.2)	(77.1)
Graduate school	41	7	27	19
	(9.6)	(1.5)	(13.2)	(7.8)
	426	475	205	245

As the highest educational attainment data for the Japanese in general, we used data from the aforementioned ‘Survey on the Impact of the Spread of New Coronavirus Infections from the Perspective of Gender Equality’ (Japan Cabinet Office, 2021b), which can be conditioned by the area of residence and the age of the respondents and their children (Table 3). Significant differences in distribution were seen for men and women (men χ²₍₃₎ = 15.13, V = .16, p = .002; women χ²₍₃₎ = 104.38, V = .38, p < .001). Residual tests revealed a significant difference for men in that fewer had attended junior and technical colleges (p = .001) and most had attended universities (p = .017). Similarly, a significant difference was observed for women, with fewer junior and high school graduates, junior and technical college graduates, and university and graduate school graduates (p < .001).

They were also asked about their parents’ highest educational attainment, using the same format. A total of 76.1% of the fathers and 48.6% of the mothers had a university or graduate degrees (those who reported having no father or mother were excluded from the population). We compared these figures with those from a survey conducted by the Japan Cabinet Office (2021b), wherein we chose to compare data of those (358 men and 227 women) in the 55-69 age group who lived in our study’s seven chosen prefectures. Significant differences in distribution were shown for both fathers and mothers (father χ²₍₃₎ = 10.96, V = .12, p = .02; mother χ²₍₃₎ = 57.28, V = .30, p < .001). Residual tests revealed a significant difference for fathers, in that our survey had fewer junior and technical colleges (p = .043) and more graduate schools (p = .007). For mothers, a significant difference was observed, with fewer junior and high school graduates and more university and graduate school graduates (p < .001). This shows that our sample has higher educational attainment than the general Japanese population, although this is an assumption because there is considerable variation in the age difference between parents and children.

In addition, university graduates were asked to indicate the difficulty level of admission into their departments (Figure 1). In Japan, the difficulty level of admission to a school is expressed as a normalized distribution of scores, with a mean of 50 and standard deviation of 10. Therefore, theoretically, only the top 15.9% of faculties should be able to enter with a deviation score of 60 or higher. However, 53.5% of our respondents indicated that they graduated from a university with a score of 60 or higher, which is logically too high. Note that 32 men and 37 women who did not attend university were excluded from the analysis. Adding to this, a significant gender difference in university difficulty was shown (χ²₍₇₎ = 17.93, V = .20 p = .012). Specifically, level 55-59 was more common among women (p = .010) and level 60-64 was more common among men (p = .003).

Figure 1. Admission difficulty score of the university department (Self-reported).

Current life

Personal income was also compared with that of the ‘Survey on the Impact of the Spread of New Coronavirus Infections from the Perspective of Gender Equality (Japan Cabinet Office, 2021b)’. Gender-based differences in income were also observed. According to the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (2022), on average, women’s annual income is approximately 75% that of men. Therefore, we analyzed the data separately for men and women (Table 4). Owing to the small number of respondents, those with an annual income of 10 million yen or more were treated as a single group. No significant difference in ratio was shown for men (χ²₍₁₀₎ = 9.75, V = .13, p = .463), whereas a significant difference was shown for women (χ²₍₁₀₎ = 75.13, V = .34, p < .001). Residual analysis indicated that significantly fewer respondents in our survey indicated having less than 1 million yen (p < .001), and significantly more respondents answered 5 and 7 million yen and 10 million yen or more (p < .001; p = .035; p < .001, respectively) as income.

Table 4. Comparison of annual income by gender: Our results vs Japan Cabinet Office data.

	Japan Cabinet Office (2021b)				Our Survey
Annual income	Men		Women		Men		Women
(Unit: 1 million yen)
Less than 1	33	(8.3)	194	(48.4)	21	(10.2)	50	(20.4)
Over 1	14	(3.5)	21	(5.2)	3	(1.5)	14	(5.7)
Over 2	28	(7.0)	49	(12.2)	14	(6.8)	38	(15.5)
Over 3	66	(16.6)	62	(15.5)	27	(13.2)	42	(17.1)
Over 4	86	(21.6)	42	(10.5)	46	(22.4)	38	(15.5)
Over 5	76	(19.1)	17	(4.2)	34	(16.6)	28	(11.4)
Over 6	41	(10.3)	11	(2.7)	21	(10.2)	11	(4.5)
Over 7	21	(5.3)	3	(0.7)	10	(4.9)	7	(2.9)
Over 8	12	(3.0)	1	(0.2)	8	(3.9)	3	(1.2)
Over 9	7	(1.8)	0	(0.0)	9	(4.4)	2	(0.8)
Over 10	13	(3.3)	1	(0.2)	10	(4.9)	8	(3.3)
Over 11	1	(0.3)	0	(0.0)	2	(1.0)	4	(1.6)
Total	398		401		205		245

Finally, we compared the perceived standard of living (M  =  2.97 ± 0.90) with the October 2022 Public Opinion Survey on National Life conducted by the Japan Cabinet Office (2023). This survey was administered by mail in October-November of the same year as our survey and received 1,888 responses (69% response rate). Raw data for this survey were not available; therefore, it was impossible to examine region and age simultaneously. Therefore, we decided to align only age groups for comparison. Comparisons were made for those in their 30s because the survey age groups were divided into 18-29 and 30-39.

The results are summarized in Table 5. Owing to the small number of people who chose the option ‘high’, it was combined with the ‘higher-middle’ category during the statistical test. A significant difference in the proportions was shown (χ²₍₃₎ = 22.58, V = .21, p < .001). Residual tests indicated that our survey had significantly more ‘high/higher-middle’ (p < .001) and significantly less ‘middle’ (p = .005).

Table 5. Comparison of perceived standard of living (aged 30－39).

	Japan Cabinet Office (2023)		Our survey
	n	(%)	n	(%)
High	1	(0.5)	10	(3.4)
Higher middle	27	(12.8)	83	(27.9)
Middle	116	(55.0)	126	(42.3)
Lower middle	53	(25.1)	66	(22.1)
Low	14	(6.6)	13	(4.4)
Total	211		298

Discussion

This study investigated whether attending selective junior high schools is associated with higher educational attainment, perceived standard of living, and personal income and evaluated the significance of junior high school entrance examinations. The results showed that the perceived standard of living was higher for those who attended selective junior high schools than for the general population. Gender differences were observed in annual income. While women who attended selective junior high schools had a higher annual income than the general population, there was no significant difference in income among men based on their experiences with junior high schools. This finding could be attributed to the relatively high rate of unmarried individuals among those who attended selective junior high school (this study showed) as well as the Japanese cultural norms of women quitting their jobs or reducing their workload after marriage.

Notably, the results of this survey revealed that a higher percentage of unmarried individuals attended selective junior high schools. Additionally, an increasing number of Japanese people married in their later years. Therefore, the observed differences may be because the survey included participants aged up to 39 years. In other words, it is possible that those who attended selective junior high schools did not necessarily marry less but rather married at a later age because of their higher level of education.

With regard to educational attainment, a higher percentage of women attending selective junior high schools pursued higher education. However, there was little difference among men. A potential explanation for this could be that the level of difficulty of university admissions may have varied between the two groups, making it challenging to compare them directly, especially because a higher percentage of the age group in question attended university. On an average, those who attended a selective junior high school may have attended more competitive universities. We cannot determine this point clearly, partly because the study had only self-reported data on scores needed to enter university and partly because there were some difficulties in making an exact comparison with the general population.

Women who attended selective junior high schools had higher annual incomes and higher perceived standards of living than both men and women who attended public junior high schools. Therefore, attending a selective junior high school appears to have an economic effect. However, as the original wealth of the family may have influenced the number of schools in which the individual took entrance exams, the results should be interpreted with caution (e.g., Clark & Del Bono, 2016). Among those analyzed, women had a higher perceived standard of living than men. This finding supports the argument that gender differences in the relationship between the economy and educational investment are stronger for girls. The correlation between a family’s financial capacity to bear supplementary educational expenditures and its children’s ability to acquire superior education is widely acknowledged. Nevertheless, this connection appears to have a greater impact on girls (Ohashi et al., 2023). An alternative interpretation of the greater effect of attending selective junior high school among girls would be the difference between single-sex and co-educational schools. While all public junior high schools in Japan are coeducational, selective junior high schools include a certain number of single-sex schools. Studies have shown that girls attending single-sex schools during adolescence tend to have higher levels of autonomy and competitive orientation (Booth & Nolen, 2012; Dustmann et al., 2018; Lee et al., 2014). Booth and Nolen (2012) argue that this may be due to the pressure on girls to maintain their gender identity in the presence of boys. Girls in girls’ schools, however, develop a habit of doing everything without relying on men. Therefore, in their future plans, they tend to be more independent, have strong careers, and may not feel the need to marry. This may have led to differences in occupational choices such as fewer choices for full-time homemakers. Our results showing differences between men and women may indirectly indicate the continued existence of gender distinctions in public co-educational schools. We recommend public junior high schools with large numbers of students, to make more conscious efforts to encourage women to take the initiative.

Overall, this study suggests that taking junior high school entrance exams may contribute to obtaining higher education, but its effect on income and living standards remains unclear. Societal and cultural factors such as marital status, family living together, household income, and place of residence need to be viewed holistically.

Limitations and future direction

This study has several limitations. First, this study compared data from a survey conducted by a public institution rather than directly comparing a group that had never taken a junior high school entrance exam with a group that had. Due to the use of this methodology, various variables, including the effects of subsequent schooling, could not be controlled. When examining the long-term effects of having taken junior high school entrance examinations, it is necessary to simultaneously compare those who have taken junior high school entrance examinations with those who have not using the same questionnaire. This would allow for a discussion of whether university or junior high school entrance examinations have a greater impact.

Second, although we compared personal income and perceived standard of living, they were subjective. As affluence varies depending on the type of family structure and how people live, psychological factors such as happiness and life satisfaction should also be compared. Future research should integrate these factors to examine the effects of education at different stages.

Conclusion

Entrance examinations for junior high schools have gained popularity in Japan, without being thoroughly examined. Some studies have examined the effects of educational attainment by focusing on college education. Therefore, this study examined if attending selective junior high schools was associated with ‘good results’, as people expect. The results showed that attending selective junior high schools contributed to obtaining higher education, which supports the findings of previous studies. It was also found that attending selective junior high schools contributed to a higher standard of living and income; however, its effect on increasing income was found only among women. Interestingly, these effects were greater in women than in men, as interpreted as follows: girls who attend single-sex private schools in adolescence tend to develop higher levels of autonomy and competitiveness, possibly because of the absence of pressure from boys. Our study underscores the importance of actively promoting and facilitating women’s leadership initiatives in public junior high schools with substantial student enrollment. Compared to the effect of university or the highest educational attainment, which is the highest educational attainment for many Japanese, the effect of attending selective junior high schools seems to be relatively small. This is probably because junior high school is only a midway point in education, and prepares the foundation for a professional career.

Although there are many studies in educational sociology that examine the impact of school history, there are few empirical studies on the impact of the choice of junior high school, as only a small percentage of students go on to a selective junior high school. The study is valuable in that it investigates whether attending selective junior high schools is associated with higher educational attainment, perceived standard of living, and personal income in a country with different employment practices. Further studies are required to address these limitations.

Ethics approval

The study was approved by Tokyo Future University ethics committee (No. 2022-17). At the beginning of the survey, it was explained that responses were voluntary, their anonymity was ensured, and the results would be published in a statistically analysed form, with the name of the survey administrator clearly stated, and those who agreed to these statements responded to the survey.

Acknowledgments

We thank the participants who assisted us in this study. We thank Dr. Tomohiro Suzuki (Tokyo Future University) for advice regarding the analysis. We would like to thank Editage (www.editage.com) for the English language editing.

Disclosure statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Data availability statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available in Author’s cite at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370403163_EntranceExamExperienceStudyData_Dec2022_inJapan.

Additional information

Funding

This study was supported by a special research grant from Tokyo Future University.

Notes on contributors

Megumi M. Ohashi

Megumi M. Ohashi is a Professor at Tokyo Future University. She got her PhD (social psychology) at the University of Tokyo. Her research focuses on Japanese sense of self, child rearing, and group psychology of youth sports.

Etsuko Togo

Etsuko Togo is a Professor at Tokyo Future University. She got her PhD at Tsukuba University. Her research interests include community psychology, problems in youth sports, and parents’ education.

Yumiko Iume

Yumiko Iume is an Associate Professor at Tokyo Future University. She got her MA at Ochanomizu University. She is a clinical psychologist. Her research interests include family problems and children with mild developmental disabilities.