Supporting adolescents’ personal growth and well-being through the Study with Strength intervention

Abstract

Pressure on upper-secondary students to perform well is increasing at the same time as mental health problems are growing. At best, schools should be an arena for both academic work and the acquisition of life skills. The aim of this study was to explore the effects of a positive psychology intervention, named Study with Strength, on self-reported well-being at school and in daily life among students in upper secondary education. Nine schools in Finland participated in the intervention, offered as a course in the curriculum. The course included theory and practice, group discussions, and self-reflection. Thirty individual interviews were conducted and analysed through inductive content analysis. Seven themes were identified: flexible cognition, positive emotions, self-knowledge, self-compassion, values, awareness of psychological strengths, and social interaction. Personal growth emerged as a distinct feature throughout the analysis and thus was identified as the main theme. The results show that a positive psychology intervention such as Study with Strength, included in the school curriculum, may support adolescents’ well-being and personal growth in a positive manner.

Keywords:

• Upper secondary school
• positive psychology intervention
• life skills
• well-being
• personal growth

Reviewing Editor:

• Rachel Maunder, University of Northampton, Northampton, United Kingdom

Subjects:

• School Psychology
• Secondary Education
• Educational Psychology

Introduction

To meet the demands of a rapidly changing world, students need resources that cultivate resilience (Salmela-Aro et al., 2022), cognitive flexibility, and psychological strength (Harari, 2018). Mental resources such as psychological flexibility, self-regulation (Asikainen et al., 2018; Bandura, 1991), and self-efficacy (Zimmerman, 2000) interplay with academic emotions, and influence students’ academic achievement. The pressure on students to perform well at school has been increasing at the same time as mental health problems are affecting a growing number of young people in the Western world (Hunt & Eisenberg, 2010; WHO, 2018). Moreover, students in upper secondary schools are under much pressure caused by rapid changes in the matriculation examination and admission requirements for higher education (HE) (Perander et al., 2020). The consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic, climate change and the tense situation in the world have further increased stress and anxiety among adolescents (Salmela-Aro et al., 2022). Depressive symptoms and loneliness became more prevalent during the pandemic (Aalto-Setälä, 2021; Helakorpi & Kivimäki, 2021). Sixty-two percent of students at school struggled with their studies, finding it difficult to find a balance between work and leisure, and sixteen percent did not have enough people to confide in and share their problems (Finlands Gymnasistförbund, 2022). Personal resilience could be conceptualised as a set of individual protective factors, such as the ability to cope with stressful events and negative feelings during the COVID-19 pandemic (Doom et al., 2023). Related factors include higher levels of self-efficacy, self-esteem and life satisfaction, linked to lower levels of anxiety, depression and behavioural problems (Beames et al., 2021; Scheiner et al., 2023; Tamarit et al., 2023; Zhu et al., 2022). Recent studies attest to the presence of resilience and protective factors among adolescents during COVID-19 (Garagiola et al., 2022). Those who reported high levels of social connectedness during the lockdown also reported lower levels of anxiety and depression (Magson et al., 2021).

Positive psychology is defined as ‘the scientific study of optimal human functioning’ (Linley, 2006), a field launched to form a counterbalance to research within more traditional psychology (Seligman, 1999). A positive psychology intervention (PPI) could be defined as a period of training and exercises focusing on enhancing positive emotions, positive cognitions and positive behaviour (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009). Schueller et al. (2014) refer to PPI as a research-based intervention aimed at enhancing well-being (not just reducing mental problems and alleviating symptoms), which can be designed within any field of psychology. Thus, a broad definition allows for evidence-based interventions outside positive psychology (Pinquart & Forstmeier, 2012). Studies have shown that education in positive psychology may enhance student well-being (Chodkiewicz & Boyle, 2017; Shoshani & Steinmetz, 2014; Waters, 2011). Various meta-analyses (Carr et al., 2021; Durlak et al., 2011; Tejada-Gallardo et al., 2020) have also revealed that multi-component positive psychology interventions in schools positively affect adolescents’ well-being and alleviate depression. Nevertheless, further research is needed to establish the best methods for introducing such interventions (Chodkiewicz & Boyle, 2017).

The multi-component PPI named Study with Strength was initiated following numerous requests by public upper secondary schools, suggesting that there is an increasing need to focus on adolescents’ well-being in the school context. Dodge et al. (2012, p. 230) define well-being as ‘when individuals have the psychological, social, and physical resources they need to meet a particular psychological, social and/or physical challenge’. Well-being is defined in this study as an individual’s awareness of their ability to cope with normal life stress, and of being able to work and make a contribution to their community (WHO, 2004). Personal growth refers to a sense of personal development, including improving one’s behaviour over time, acquiring self-knowledge, developing (healthy) attitudes, as well as being open and interested in new life experiences (Ryff, 1989).

The aim of this study is to explore the self-reported effects of Study with Strength, on the psychological well-being of students at upper secondary school and to find out whether the intervention can support the students’ healthy mental development. The study aims to answer the following research questions:

1. How do students at upper secondary school reflect on and implement exercises and theoretical knowledge from the positive psychology intervention Study with Strength in their schoolwork and daily life?

2. What are the effects of the Study with Strength intervention on the students’ self-reported well-being and personal growth in school and daily life?

Adolescents’ healthy mental development in a school context

Outside family and friends, school represents a social setting in which adolescents establish their self-identity (Arwas & Flum, 2020), which in turn is crucial for the development of socio-emotional competence (Yeager, 2017). Upper secondary schooling characterises a period in life when adolescents are entering adulthood, finding their place in society; exploring values, friends and vocational choices (La Guardia, 2009). Adolescents need skills and knowledge related to taking charge of their lives and thriving, hence consciously and purposively affecting their own choices and goals (Larson, 2000). Students’ school history, with its setbacks and steps forward related to academic work, builds their self-perception as learners (Weiner, 2010). Schools also constitute an arena for academic work and development, and a place in which to learn life skills (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Teachers play a crucial role in supporting students’ psychological needs such as a sense of self-worth and self-perception, and the school environment significantly influences aspects such as student relatedness, involvement and participation (Long, 2020; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Sewell, 2011). Hence, teachers and peer students strongly affect feelings of belonging and affiliation (Hymel et al., 1996). Mental resources in combination with a supportive school environment foster enthusiasm, motivation and creativity among students, whereas excessive challenges and pressure from both the study environment and themselves, increase the risk of burnout (Salmela-Aro, 2017). Burnout at upper secondary school may extend to other life domains such as studying in HE or the world of work, potentially leading to depression (Salmela-Aro, 2017).

Life satisfaction in adolescence facilitates the accumulation of social and mental resources in young adults, enabling them to control their environment and subjective well-being at school and in everyday life (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Salmela-Aro, 2017; Stallard, 2019). The more positivity, manifest in feelings of joy, gratitude, interest and hope, that learners experience, the more capable they will be of taking in information, leading to positive learning spirals (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Damasio, 1999; Fredrickson, 1998, 2001, 2013; Myers, 1993; Seligman, 2002). The implication here is that one can perform well without feeling anxious or stressed. However, positive emotions are lighter, more volatile and harder to perceive than negative ones (Fredrickson, 2013), which is why students need the skills to generate them to ease stress and enhance well-being.

Multidimensional concepts of well-being

Seligman (2012) proposes a theory of well-being comprising five core elements that humans need to flourish: Positive Emotions, Engagement, Relations, Meaning and Accomplishment. These elements interact, but could be defined separately as representing both hedonic and eudaimonic elements (Seligman, 2012). The PERMA theory of well-being constituted the framework for the Study with Strength intervention, based on all the core elements of the PERMA model. Ryff’s model of well-being (Ryff, 1989) includes elements of Jahoda’s theory of mental health (Jahoda, 1958), highlighting high and low dimensions of Self-acceptance, Personal Growth, Purpose in Life, Positive Relation with Others, Environmental Mastery and Autonomy.

Method

Context

Compulsory education is free of charge and applies to all 6–18-year-olds living in Finland. After basic education (grades 1-9), students choose either general or vocational upper secondary education. General upper secondary school leads to the matriculation examination, and vocational study to a vocational qualification: both qualify students to continue into higher education (Finnish National Agency of Education, 2021).

Study with Strength is a positive psychology intervention that was conducted in nine public upper secondary schools in Finland. The participating schools were geographically dispersed, and quite small (100– 400 students per school). A total of 349 students (25% of all students in the participating schools) participated in the intervention: 27 per cent males and 73 per cent females. Study with Strength was offered as a regular course in the curriculum: as an optional choice (offered by the school) at eight schools, and as a compulsory course at one.

The intervention

Study with Strength was developed based on methods and research findings within the fields of positive psychology, cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), and acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). The course was taught by the schools’ teachers and/or school counsellors, working alone or in pairs. Beforehand, the teachers and other school personnel involved completed a five-day qualification training programme taught by the researchers, familiarising them with the theoretical background as well as the content of the intervention. The research group designed Study with Strength with the participating school personnel; it consisted of 17 lessons equalling 38 hours of study. Lessons were given once a week in one school and two or three days a week in the other eight, and varied in duration between 60 and 75 minutes depending on the schedules in the various schools. The course content covered the following themes: values and meaningful goal setting, character strengths, positive emotions, positive relationships, constructive communication, mindset, resilience, self-compassion and mindfulness. The lessons included theory and practice, group discussions, lectures, self-reflection, and individual writing exercises, both in class and at home between the lessons. The exercises and learning techniques used in this PPI are based on research and theories in the fields of positive psychology and education (e.g. Bandura, 1991; Fredrickson 2001; Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, 2007; Stallard, 2019; Zimmerman, 2000). All the schools received the same educational material, including ready-to-use PowerPoint presentations, exercises, videos, discussion questions and homework. The group sizes varied from six to 25 students, and the course was held both online (due to COVID-19) and onsite at school, depending on the government regulations in force at the time.

Data collection

The Study with Strength research project is an intervention study that follows a randomised wait list control group design. This design was chosen to ensure all participating students’ equal opportunities to take part in the intervention course, offered as a regular course in the curriculum. The overall research project follows a mixed methods approach (Bowles et al., 2014). The focus in this article is on the qualitative data. A qualitative approach was chosen as it allowed for nuances and in-depth reflections (Forrester & Sullivan, 2018) on the students’ experiences of the intervention. The data were gathered from 30 individual in-depth interviews with students, conducted in spring 2021 after they had participated in the Study with Strength course in October–December 2020 and January–May 2021. The interviewees were randomly selected: between two and four students from each participating school were invited to participate through e-mail. A total of 53 invitations were sent, and 30 students participated. The participants represented (self-reported) high-achieving students, those who achieved the results they expected, and those who struggled with their studying. Given the restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic and the safety regulations in force at the time, interviews lasting 45–90 minutes were conducted online using safe digital rooms (Zoom) fitted with cameras and microphones. The students were contacted directly without the involvement of a teacher or principal.

The interview questions covered three main themes: well-being, coping with stress and life skills, and included questions concerning studying as well as everyday life. The students wrote personal reflection journals during the course and, if they so wished, used their personal writings as support in their reflections during the interviews. All the interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim, resulting in 332 pages of text and approximately 27 hours of audio recording.

Ethical considerations

The study was conducted according to the recommendations of the Finnish National Board on Research Integrity (TENK, 2012). The University of Helsinki Ethical Review Board in the Humanities and Social and Behavioural Sciences read and accepted the research and data-collection plan in January 2020. Research permission was received from all the municipalities in which the participating schools were located. Every student participating in the study filled out a consent form covering participation in the interviews as well as the use and copying of student material produced during the course. The audio file names do not include any identifying information, and only participant codes were included in the files. Pseudonyms were used when reporting the findings to maintain student confidentiality.

Analysis

The interviews were analysed using qualitative inductive content analysis by studying the raw data without a prepared coding framework (Finfgeld-Connett, 2014; Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). The aim of the inductive approach was to find patterns in the data which allowed for the exploration and identification of underlying meaning and experiences that were relevant to this study (Bengtsson, 2016; Graneheim et al., 2017). The qualitative data analysis research tool, Atlas.ti, was used for coding. A systematic six-step approach (Braun & Clarke, 2006) was taken to ensure precision in the analysis process: familiarisation with the data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes and producing the report. The codes were initially based on the interviewees’ spoken words, systematically in every section, which generated 198 codes. ‘Section’ was defined as the interviewees’ spoken words between the interviewer’s questions. Codes were merged and renamed to reflect the higher abstract level of the data as well as overlapping codes with the same meaning, and some names were merged, resulting in 44 codes. As the interviewees reflected on their well-being, personal development, self-knowledge, self-concept and self-esteem, personal growth emerged as a distinct feature throughout the analysis, and was therefore identified as the main theme. The following seven sub-themes were identified from the 44 codes: 1) flexible cognition; 2) positive emotions; 3) self-knowledge; 4) self-compassion; 5) values; 6) awareness of psychological strengths; and 7) social interaction.

The students reflected on how they had understood the meaning of learning skills that could be used daily, and gaining knowledge to promote well-being, leading to a better understanding of healthy mental development. Thus, a positive change in behaviour and cognition (related to both studying and everyday life) over time led to a sense of personal growth. The themes are presented in Figure 1, according to the percentage of students reflecting on the themes in the interviews. The sub-themes were connected to and intertwined with each other, hence they became core elements for enhancing subjective well-being and personal growth.

Figure 1. A thematic map and the proportions (percentage) of students reflecting on the theme.

Here we describe the sub-themes in random order. Flexible cognition includes students’ reflections on how they embraced a changed mindset; an awareness of their thought patterns from negative to positive, related to both studying and everyday life. Social interaction covers students’ expressions of gratitude for having friends and family with whom to share thoughts about feelings related to studying, everyday life and personal development. Values relate to their reflections on and answers to what is important in their lives. Self-compassion refers to their descriptions of being kinder to themselves, usually related to studying and academic performance. Self-knowledge and psychological strengths were often described together as the interviewees reflected on their psychological strengths, self-esteem and self-concept. The students described their psychological strengths both in the school context and in other domains of life, including family, friends and work. Positive emotions include awareness of the good things in life that were previously taken for granted, feelings of gratitude relating to everyday life, friends and families, and how to choose consciously to act in a way that generates positive emotions, especially during stressful times.

The quotations presented in this article are translated from Swedish by the first author. All the authors discussed them to ensure that the original meaning was maintained in the English translation.

Findings

Personal growth and well-being

The students reflected on the positive changes in their cognition, emotions and behaviour (relating both to studying and to everyday life), indicating a sense of personal growth. They benefitted from the content differently in line with their varying social and mental resources. Nearly all the students (97%) reported benefits from the course content when reflecting on future study and work.

The students had neutral expectations about Study with Strength beforehand. However, they were surprisingly positive in how they received it, and for many it exceeded their expectations. Students at the school in which the course was compulsory expressed similar feelings, with one exception: a female student was critical and expressed feelings of irritation because the course was compulsory, and the content was self-evident to some extent. However, her perception of the teacher was positive and her attitude changed from critical to more reflective during the interview. A male student from the same school (in which the course was compulsory) expressed positivity and reflected as follows: ‘I think everyone entering upper secondary school should take this course, it should be a compulsory course’. All of the students referred to the significance of having good teachers leading the course, describing Study with Strength as different from other courses in the curriculum. They recalled how some teachers shared personal narratives during the sessions, promoting an atmosphere of safety. The group discussions in the classroom during the intervention were described as important and interesting – learning things about themselves by listening and talking to others. Nevertheless, concerns about the reluctance among peer students to participate in discussions were raised several times. The course as a whole and the weekly lessons were perceived as ‘safe space’ (in a student’s own words), where the participants could calm down and focus on their subjective well-being, behaviour, personal goals and values with the support of the teacher and their peer students. They were given the opportunity to choose the extent to which they engaged in the lessons in terms of their contributions and ways of learning: taking part in group discussions, listening to lectures, working in pairs, or self-reflection during the course or at home. Some students mentioned an awkward atmosphere at the beginning of the course, but as it went on and they came to know each other better the awkwardness diminished, and self-confidence increased:

Student Anne: I remember that at the beginning, it was scary to state my opinions, especially being the youngest in the class. But then time went by and our teachers were very committed, they said ‘just say what you want’, or there are no wrong or right answers. You can share as much as you want, so you got a very positive feeling from the teachers which was nice. But yes, I noticed that the longer it went, the more open I became. I was even willing to go in front of the class and share things.

The smaller the group, the easier the students found it to express themselves and the safer they felt reflecting openly and sharing personal narratives concerning their learning process and personal development as the course proceeded. As they got to know each other better, the easier it was to contribute to discussions. Not surprisingly, another factor that seemed to affect the willingness to participate was time.

Flexible cognition

This theme was mentioned by 77 per cent of the students, indicating the importance of psychoeducation, e.g. how knowledge about thought patterns and practical exercises can transform adolescents’ cognitions from negative to positive and thus enhance subjective well-being. Some students referred in the interviews to exercises and methods they had learned from the intervention that helped them to develop a mindset they found helpful in their studying and everyday life. The student quoted below was talking about an exercise related to studying:

Student Elisabet: Before, it was like if something went wrong, it was so negative and then I started blaming myself that I had to be better than that. Then I started to push myself even more and it became more stressful. My mindset is now much better, it has changed[….] Now it’s easier because I don’t have as much pressure on me as before. After all, I don’t have to be good at everything.[…] It has felt much better and I have become much kinder to myself and that changes my whole life.[…] I feel much happier these days and in situations that I would otherwise have become very frustrated with. I feel that I can help myself handle situations that I find myself in, I can deal with situations and I can see the positive sides of situations, not just the negative sides. My parents have said to me that I am much happier these days and I have talked about this with my friends.

Students experienced more joy, serenity and interest when finding ways to handle stressful situations related to studying by consciously choosing different ways of thinking - from negative to positive thought patterns, and easing the pressure (on themselves) to perform. However, not all of them found it easy to change their thought patterns related to all areas of life, not only studying. The one quoted below found it hard, but she was aware of her thought patterns and was actively working on improving them:

Student Sanna: I've had a tendency to like…. if I feel that something is going wrong, I always have a very hard time getting out of it. It’s always going to be a catastrophe, as my mother calls it. So, it’s something I've been trying to work on for a while now.

Interviewer: Can you give an example of how you are now working on it?

Student Sanna: […] to lower expectations because I have such high expectations of myself and I demand a lot of myself. So just lowering them and thinking that it is impossible to have such expectations of oneself. And start thinking realistically and say that now I have done enough. It is very difficult […]. I have discussed it very openly with my parents, especially when Ím stuck and they help me by saying not to put so much pressure on myself.

Negative thought patterns, low self-esteem and self-confidence were mentioned by students during the interviews. Finding ways of working constructively with negative thought patterns and becoming aware of their own patterns and how to affect them helped them to see the situations they encountered from a different perspective.

Positive emotions

Some students related positive emotions to everyday life, friends and family. Just over a quarter of them (27%) recalled an exercise from the course: writing a daily gratitude journal entitled ‘Count three blessings’, which helped them find and become aware of things in their life they had previously taken for granted but were grateful for, exemplified in the following quotation:

Student Fredrik: I have started to appreciate small things much more. I took this gratitude diary and wrote down three things (I am grateful for) before I went to bed. I haven’t been so diligent in writing down (things I am grateful for) but I have noticed that I have started to appreciate smaller things and I am a little more aware of the present. For example, dinner with the family. Sometimes I can just be there and eat, and talk a little and that’s it and I have the family close to me and everything is fine.

Thus, the students’ reflections reveal their ability to cultivate and amplify positive emotions in their daily lives, along with a deeper understanding of the significance and impact of positive emotions on their well-being. The students were given exercises throughout the course. They were also introduced to learning methods aimed at strengthening and nurturing their positive emotions, with the help of the gratitude diary mentioned above, and through their reflections and conscious actions:

Student Lisa: Well maybe, like this to relax a little more [….] and when I have become more aware of what gives me positive emotions or like what could help me at that moment [….] I take a self-care day, I can take this one day for myself, it is not unproductive. By having a little time off…what would be good for me and what feels good and how could I recharge my batteries [….] I have allowed myself to be like okay I take a day off today [laughs]…so I give time to myself to do something that feels nice, then I'm much more productive tomorrow. And in that way, when I know what’s good for me, which this course has helped me find, I allow myself to do those things.

All the students mentioned the pressure to perform well in their studying, and to focus on the matriculation examination. Taking time to relax and engage in things that gave them joy and pleasure in the middle of stressful periods of study was something that Study with Strength taught them was important (for enhancing well-being). Taking time for a walk, having coffee with friends, going to the gym, watching a good movie, or listening to music were mentioned as ways of nurturing positive emotions.

Student Anne: I try every day to do something that gets me in a good mood. If I have a stressful study time, I’m still trying to have some fun or do something that puts me in a good mood. Like listening to music, I enjoy listening to music, I do it almost every day now and it is something I don’t even think about. When I listen to music, I can let myself go and dance.

The students became aware that making time for enjoyable experiences, rest or hobbies helped them to focus on studying without becoming overwhelmed with stress and anxiety. Finding a balance between studying and free time, and ‘normalising investment in one’s well-being’ (as one student put it), were things they had learned from the course.

Self-knowledge and awareness of psychological strengths

These two aspects tended to be discussed in combination during the interviews as the students reflected on their psychological strengths, self-esteem and self-concept. They reported enhanced self-confidence overall in school and during lessons, both throughout during and after the course.

Interviewer: We are almost ready. Is there something you want to add or comment on?

Student Fredrik: Yes. I have noticed, or I have always been a little, I would not say shy, but if I want to raise my hand and say something, I am always a little….my heart starts to pound a little. I have started to say more during lessons and more often, maybe lately during mathematics lessons, so then I lower the threshold (for myself) to say something.

Awareness of and using their (psychological) strengths increased the students’ self-confidence and positive self-perception, particularly when it came to participating actively in lessons and in teamwork outside Study with Strength. They found the courage to raise their hand and to be more active during the lessons, was mentioned by students and they described feelings of pride and self-worth. This was particularly prevalent among high-achieving students.

The female student quoted below acknowledged the importance of talking to peer students about issues related to studying, and finding that they faced the same challenges. She reflected on how she learned to use her strength persistence consciously when it came to challenges relating to mathematics, and bravery when it came to giving presentations:

Student Betty: This course helped me. Before Study with Strength, I had a mathematics course that did not go well at all, and I was sure that I would quit advanced mathematics. But then somehow, during this course, I noticed that many others also had problems with advanced mathematics, and then we talked a lot about it being just another course and that we should not give up. And then I have noticed, and this is new for me, how much I like to give presentations. I have benefited from the fact that I am now aware of this because now, after the course, I look forward to giving them, and it feels nice that I have found some new strengths in myself. […] I feel I have become more self-confident, which is great, I think.

Discovering new characteristics that were not previously assumed to be strengths, or even part of their character, allowed some students to feel more self-confident, joyful, and empowered.

Interviewer: Do you remember talking about strengths? How do you feel about them?

Student Anne: It has helped a lot, because, before the course, I did not know anything about any character strengths. I remember our teacher telling us and she showed us the character strengths and said: ‘you have all of these’. And I was a bit like ‘what’? I have all those? Before the course and right at the beginning of it, I had a very hard time being able to give myself any positive feedback. So, to find out that I have all sorts of strengths was a bit like…came a bit like a shock. A good shock. That I can use those strengths in different ways, and I can improve my strengths, and work on them. I got to know myself differently when I got to know those strengths.

Interviewer: What do you think about your strengths when you observe them? What do you think about Anne?

Student Anne: I think she is really good. Yes, no but… getting to know myself better and I have somehow noticed what is important for me, what is important in life. So, it was such a good feeling. I am kinder to myself and it has led me to be kinder to others. Like justice and kindness (character strengths), I have noticed that being with friends, for example, if somebody is talking nonsense behind someone’s back, I say like hey, let’s do something else, or let’s not talk about this.

The implication in this particular student’s response was that she found the self-assessment strength survey used in the course to be useful in making her aware of her psychological strengths, embracing them and using them with stronger intent. Asked about their strengths, the students used ‘strength words’ from the survey and related positively to the test result from the survey. They reflected on their personality, as introverts or extroverts, and on how their friends perceived them in terms of psychological strengths. Some students found it hard to believe they had any strengths, as they openly articulated it, but then eventually realised what they were.

Self-compassion

For about half of the students (53%), self-compassion meant being kinder to themselves, in most cases regarding their academic performance, commonly using words such as self-criticism and self-judgment. During the course they learned to acknowledge their harsh inner voice and to counteract the criticism by understanding it, examining it and replacing it with a kinder voice, especially if they made mistakes or experienced failure. Viveka reflected on her life, and made decisions about her studying that eventually had a positive impact on her well-being:

Student Viveka: [….] I would never advise anyone to speak in the same way as I speak to myself. […] This course [Study with Strength] reminded me that I should talk with a professional (psychologist). […] I had to drop out of some of my courses because the workload was far too heavy for me. It feels strange for me even to discuss it now. I have exactly the courses I need and I do not need to take more ….but it still feels like failure. But now I feel much calmer about the decision, I do it for myself, which I think is great and important. How I treat myself and how I speak to myself, this is something that will change for me now, this is one of the most important things for me to start to do now. To start prioritising myself, especially when it is so difficult for me. I am slowly learning now when I have the time….

Just over half of the students (53%, representing both genders: 81% females and 19% males) referred to feelings of inner peace, tranquility and hope, and to lower levels of anxiety and stress when activley practising self-compassion. At the same time, they reported being kinder to others. They described self-compassion as important, but not always easy to put into practice.

Values

One session in Study with Strength included the theme ‘prioritising values’. This could explain the awareness among the students (83%) of what is important in their lives, and indicates that they had reflected on the question more profoundly. Matters they discussed during the interviews included the importance of family and friends, helping and caring for others, taking care of one’s physical and mental health, being happy and having ambitions. They reflected on their lives, envisioning how they hoped to live and what they wanted to prioritise:

Interviewer: You know what is important in your life and how you prioritise it. What does it entail for you?

Student Helena: I think it entails spending more time on what I enjoy doing. More time for friends. Before I was rarely with friends, now I meet my friends at least once a week, and I make an effort to do that. And I have completely changed my lifestyle. I prioritise exercise and fresh air for my well-being, and when I started to do this I felt better. It has simply just made my life better [laughs]. I feel much better in that way.

The students mentioned feeling under less pressure related to studying, and more time to do enjoyable things and spend time with friends. They all referred to friends and spending more time with them as important, consciously choosing to prioritise this even during periods of study-related stress. Personal goals, ambitions and future dreams after upper secondary school were also deemed important, as the next quotation shows:

Student Fredrik: I want to be successful. What I define as success right now is maybe to perform well at school, be physically active, feel good, and have a lot of friends around me. And then, work hard so I can get a job in the future and become financially independent. So that’s what I want and what I prioritise. I spend a lot of time with my family and friends.

The students reflected on the future, their interests and their plans. Not all of them had a clear plan beyond the matriculation examination, but none of them mentioned stress relating to uncertainty about the future, indicating a mindset of hope.

Social interaction

Over half of the students (57%) acknowledged the importance of reserving more time for friends: as one student put it, ‘valuing time with friends enhances positive emotions and generates energy even if it sometimes would be easier to stay at home because of fatigue’. They reflected on being more open in their interaction with friends, adopting an attitude of mindful listening with them during and after the course:

Student Ellen: One of my friends was on the same course as me, and one of the most important things that we learned from this course was that we can talk about feelings and stuff on a deeper level. Before the course we seldom had any deep discussions that involved emotions. We now dare to be open and to talk about our feelings, and that feels good. Our communication is now better than before.

Both female and male students mentioned being more present in the moment and being able to have constructive conversations with friends, siblings and parents. Having a supportive family, especially caregivers, plays a crucial role among those who struggle with their studying. The interviewees reflected on feeling grateful to their siblings, and trying to be kinder to family members overall. In this, they were practising and discussing the new knowledge thay had acquired during the course with friends and family.

To summarise, positive changes in the students’ behaviour and cognition, which related both to studying and to everyday life, generated positive emotions supporting well-being and personal growth over time. The sub-themes identified in this study are intertwined. Flexible cognition generates positive emotions as well as self-compassion. Practising self-compassion engenders not only positive emotions towards oneself, but also kinder and more mindful interaction with others. Prioritising values and appreciating small things in life help to nurture positive emotions and lead to spending more time with friends and family members, even in times of high academic pressure. Finally, awareness of one’s psychological strengths and using them intentionally lead to a better understanding of oneself and others, and hence to enhanced self-perception and self-esteem.

Discussion

The aim of this study was to explore the self-reported effects of the multi-component PPI Study with Strength on the psychological well-being of students in upper secondary schooling, and whether the intervention could support healthy mental development and personal growth. Our results add to current understanding of how schools could support the well-being and positive development of adolescents. According to the main findings, students who participated in the course benefitted in terms of well-being and a sense of personal growth. They understood and manifested cognitive flexibility, built on their positive emotions, self-compassion and self-knowledge, and became more aware of their psychological strengths. Furthermore, they acknowledged the importance of values such as giving time to family and friends and mindful social interaction. These themes recur in established and research-based models of psychological well-being (Seligman, 2012), social emotional learning (Durlak et al., 2011) and mental health (Hayes et al., 2006). We propose that PPI interventions such as Study with Strength could potentially help young people to develop life skills including self-compassion and awareness of their strengths, which consequently support their well-being. The results further attest to the value of further developing these themes in similar PPI interventions, as well as in the teacher training, thereby providing opportunities to focus on cognitive flexibility, positive emotions, self-knowledge, self-compassion, values, awareness of psychological strengths and social interaction.

The high percentage (83%) of student awareness of what has significance in their lives implies their engagement in profound reflection on prioritising values, which was the subject of a particular lesson in the PPI. The students showed evidence of an enhanced self-concept and self-esteem: they embraced and understood the content of the course, applying the theories and the practical exercises related both to studying and everyday life. In the interviews they reported having acquired valuable skills during Study with Strength, enabling them to navigate situations involving mistakes or failure through the application of the self-compassion training they received. However, changing thought patterns takes time, and new skills must be practised and consolidated in everyday life if students are to learn how to respond in different situations (Stallard, 2019). Nevertheless, as this study shows, the effects were immediate in that the students discussed its effects during the course, as well as during the interviews that were conducted two to three months later. The PPI also influenced students’ decision-making related to their studies: one of them, for example, actively reduced the number of courses in the curriculum and consequently felt less pressure and an improvement in well-being. Almost all (97%) of the interviewees reported benefitting from the course content when reflecting on the future regarding higher education, vocational training or work. Given that students, like other groups of individuals, have unique personalities, divergent social and mental resources, and varying needs, they benefitted from the content differently, reflecting the importance of a varied and rich content. It has been shown that multi-component PPIs have positive short-term and long-term effects on adolescents’ mental health (Tejada-Gallardo et al., 2020). It is therefore crucial, when designing a PPI, to understand the correlations between psychology, behaviour, learning and healthy mental development, which are the main foci in successful PPI (Chodkiewicz & Boyle, 2017). Accordingly, it may be beneficial if the group designing the Study with Strength intervention represents a multi-professional and interdisciplinary body of researchers and school personnel.

At best, schools can support students’ well-being and be an arena where students focus on their studies, reflect on their values, goals, and future as well as build friendships. Friendships and social connection are major factors affecting an individual’s overall well-being. Adolescents who reported high levels of social connectedness during the lockdown caused by the COVID-19 pandemic also reported lower levels of anxiety and depression (Magson et al., 2021).

Openness and having the courage to share thoughts and feelings among peers and teachers require an atmosphere, created by the teacher, that allows students to express themselves confidently without being questioned or judged by their teacher or their peers (Hymel et al., 1996; Ryan & Deci, 2000). This claim was further supported in a meta-analysis of Positive Youth Development programmes (Durlak et al., 2011): according to the findings, platforms for expressing feelings and thoughts in a positive atmosphere that encourages social and interpersonal interaction constitute core elements for successfully supporting well-being. The need for engaged and motivated teachers regarding the outcomes of the intervention cannot be over-stressed. Students talked about teachers sharing personal narratives during the course, which helped to promote an atmosphere of safety. The course participants did not know each other for the most part, although a few said they had a friend on the course. This initial lack of familiarity may have contributed to the awkwardness that students expressed during the intervention, especially at first. Many of them found it easier to share thoughts and feelings in smaller groups than in larger groups, which was perceived as challenging. Hence, the varied forms of and opportunities for self-expression during the course (such as self-reflection, writing and discussion in pairs or larger groups) allowed the students to contribute to their own learning in the way that suited them best. There are, of course, many reasons why students may be reluctant to take part in group discussions, such as an environment in which not all of them feel safe. Given the concerns raised about the reluctance of peer students to participate in discussions, further examination of what creates a safe space in PPI could be beneficial. It would be relevant to consider how educators could effectively implement strategies that foster an inclusive environment during group discussions while addressing hesitance among certain students. Classroom dialogue is used as a method for inclusive learning in Finnish upper secondary education (Finnish National Agency of Education, 2021). These schools are communities that offer students from different backgrounds the opportunity to identify and reflect on common values and principles that typify a good life, and learn to collaborate (Finnish National Agency of Education, 2021). Decades of research have identified classroom dialogue as crucial for effective learning (Howe & Abedin, 2013). According to Long (2020), deep engagement among students only occurs during a well-structured lesson, and the learning is student-centred. Hence, the PPI educator should use effective facilitation techniques that promote open communication and create a safe space – in other words an environment that emphasises active listening, respect for diverse perspectives and non-judgmental feedback during group discussions (e.g. Long, 2020; Sewell, 2011). Indeed, they should step back from the traditional educator role – from learner constellations to student centeredness (e.g. Long, 2020; Sewell, 2011).

Overall, students participating in the interviews were open in their self-reflections, sharing both personal challenges and stressors, as well as details of their personal development and learning process throughout the course. This indicates that they felt safe during the interview and had a subjective interest in the topic. They acknowledged the importance of the study, and confirmed their interest in contributing to the research, thereby reflecting the importance of the intervention on a broader level and not only from an individual perspective.

The results of this study attest to the importance of enhancing students’ well-being and positive mental development at school. Three-quarters of the Study with Strength participants were females, and 27 per cent were males. The course was voluntary, thus the participants were motivated by personal interest in the subject and curiosity. They acknowledged the relevance of the study in terms of learning to cope with academic stress, and enhancing self-knowledge, personal development and well-being. Acquiring theoretical knowledge and learning life skills to promote well-being, as well as simultaneously contributing to the research, were perceived as significant and interesting.

The acquisition of life skills should be part of education (Chodkiewicz & Boyle, 2017), and this study shows how it could be conducted. Teachers tasked with implementing and explaining the potential benefits of positive psychology in the school environment should get support and education in applying skills in the learning environment (Chodkiewicz & Boyle, 2017). Introducing Study with Strength as a compulsory course when students move to upper secondary education would give every one the same opportunity to engage and learn. The school environment may encourage students to share their emotions and values during the time spent at school, and new ways of promoting student well-being should be implemented as a part of the teaching. Students reflected on the future, their interests and their plans during the interviews, although not all of them had a clear view of life after the matriculation examination. However, none of them showed stress relating to uncertainty about the future, indicating a hope mindset. Students nowadays need hope and resilience in these uncertain times. Study with Strength offers an opportunity for students to reflect and to learn life skills, thereby building resilience and fostering hope.

One limitation of this study is that it remains unclear whether there was a long-term change in the student participants’ behaviour, emotions and cognition, because there was no follow-up study. In future research it would be beneficial to investigate potential long-term effects, or sustainability, beyond immediate outcomes, thereby further enhancing understanding of students’ overall well-being. Longitudinal research is being conducted by another researcher in our group, hence a mixed-methods approach was implemented in the research project. It would also be interesting to explore further whether the newly acquired confidence to engage actively transfers to other school subjects and collaborative tasks beyond the Study with Strength programme. The data analysed in this study were self-reported which may imply risks of social desirability or self-serving biases.

Conclusion

The implementation and anchoring of positive psychology in schools’ policies and practices would require a whole-school approach involving all school personnel (Shoshani & Steinmetz, 2014; Waters, 2011). The following practical actions could reflect the results of this study. 1) Develop targeted awareness campaigns or interventions highlighting the benefits of spending time with friends, particularly for individuals who may prioritise staying at home due to fatigue. 2) Provide training or workshops for teachers on effective facilitation techniques that promote open communication and create a safe space for student expression. 3) Foster a classroom culture that emphasises active listening, respect for diversity and various perspectives, and non-judgmental feedback during group discussions.

In conclusion, we are not aware of similar studies in Finland that introduce a research-based course for continuous use in upper secondary schools. Our findings contribute to deepening understanding of how research-based interventions could support adolescent well-being and positive development in upper secondary school environments.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest is reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This study was supported by The Swedish Cultural Foundation in Finland. Open access funded by Helsinki University Library.

Notes on contributors

Nina Hongell-Ekholm

Nina Hongell-Ekholm is aPhD student in the research project Study with Strength. She has a master’s in Economics and works as a counselor and work mediator. Her research interests include student well-being as well as work well-being with a focus on positive psychology.

Monica Londen

Monica Londen is a university lecturer in education at the University of Helsinki. Her research interests include learning and teaching in higher education, self-regulated learning and diversity in education. Her current research projects focus on positive education, inclusion and exclusion in education, and educational leadership.

Åse Fagerlund

Åse Fagerlund, PhD, clinical neuropsychologist, psychotherapist (CBT). Åse is an affiliate senior researcher at the Faculty of Educational Sciences at the University of Helsinki, Finland, and has conducted intervention research on enhancing psychological well-being for children, school staff and parents since 2015.