Determinants of academic achievement among grade ten students at Menkorer secondary school, Ethiopia: the role of individual, familial and school characteristics

Abstract

The aim of this study was to examine the role of individual, familial and school factors in predicting students’ academic achievement. The study employed correlational design to undertake the analysis. The participants of the study were 461 grade ten students which were selected using systematic random sampling technique. Self-reported questionnaire was used to gather data. Descriptive and inferential statistics were utilized so as to analyze the data. Among the inferential statistics hierarchical multivariate regression analysis was utilized to examine the relative importance of the predictor variables on the criterion variable at each level. The finding revealed that large variance in students’ academic achievement was accounted for by individual level variables followed by familial level variables. School level variables contributed considerable variance in students’ academic achievement. In order to enhance students’ academic performance, parents and school community shall contribute their share and discharge responsibilities unconditionally.

Keywords:

• Individual level
• familial level
• school level
• academic achievement

Reviewing Editor:

• Nicholas Sun-Keung Pang, East China Normal University, Hong Kong, China

Subjects:

• Cognitive Psychology
• Ecological Psychology
• Learning

Introduction

Needless to mention, education is a fundamental human right, which provides people with the chance to develop, make choices and live a better life. It is considered as a tool for acquiring knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are the key components of livelihood improvement of citizens’ and the socio-economic development of a nation (Brennan, 2018; Hanushek & Woessmann, 2020; Peters, 2004). In earlier decades, countries across the globe used to place more emphasis on ensuring free primary education for all children. With an incredible growth in the access for primary education, however, the need for shifting priority on improving the quality of education was felt throughout the world. In this respect Hanushek et al. (2009, p. 291) criticized that “concentration on school attainment goals without close attention to school quality has hurt developing countries.”

While Wongsak (2013) found factors related to student, teachers, and parents have significant impact on student academic achievement, Eamon (2005) notes socio-economic status and parents’ level of education have a significant effect on students’ overall academic achievement among others. Nishimura and Yamano (2013), similarly, indicated that family related factors are important contributors to the academic achievements of children. Other study findings (e.g. Duflo et al., 2011, 2012) highlighted the central role teachers play in ascertaining the quality of education delivered. According to Hanna and Ryan (2012), in particular, teachers are indispensable elements for educational quality assurance. Still other many scholars (e.g., Barrett, 2005; Somerset, 2009) emphasize different factors such as community participation, decentralization and accountability as factors of education quality. Velez et al. (1993), moreover, summarized twelve alternative factors affecting student achievement in educational arena. These factors include: active teaching methods; access to textbooks and other instructional material; teacher training; provision of basic infrastructure (e.g., electricity, water and furniture); teacher experience, subject matter knowledge and closeness to school; time on task and coverage of curriculum; student attitudes; preschool exposure; homework practices, including parental involvement.

At the same time, demography of students and family background (types family constellations) do have their own roles on student achievement (Sun & Li, 2011; Li & Qiu, 2018). In other words, difference in family characteristics generates a difference among the performance and achievement of students. Whether students have both families, for instance, determines student performance. Findings by Tobishama (2019) show that the number of years spent in a single-parent family increases defects in student achievement and it is larger for boys than for girls. These researchers, in addition, demonstrate that pupils from single-parent families perform less than those with both families because they do not have adequate resources that dual parent family child possess. The same sources inform that students who do not receive adequate attention from their own respective families at home lack to answer questions about their homework in the classroom than who do receive. Similarly, Hampden-Thompson (2013) and Sun and Li (2011) claim that family structure type matters to a student’s educational progress or family structure is linked to differences in educational outcome. Sun and Li (2011), in particular, contend that students who came from a disrupted family lack resource supply and perform less than those with unbroken and peaceful families. In addition, both Hampden-Thompson (2013) and Sun and Li (2011) argue that students that grow up in a single-parent home typically result in a lower academic level of achievement. Consequently, both sources suggest, teachers must be aware of the surrounding family structure or possibly the family background of every student and understand how this influences pupils’ performance so that no student shall suffer from the disruptive effects of family structure.

Furthermore, Cheng (2005) and UNICEF (2000b) describe a more comprehensive framework that determines students’ achievement. According to these sources education quality framework composes four major elements. The first one emphasizes on learner dimension. This encompasses what learners should learn and how the education system articulates learning through its policies, mission, standards, and curriculum. According to this component characteristics of the learner such as capacity, experience, socioeconomic background, place of residence, health condition, gender, etc. are important elements that affect students learning and ultimately influences students’ academic achievement. The second component focuses on contextual dimensions. In this category classroom situation, home factors, role of community, macro-economic aspects, social and religious factors, support infrastructure, peer effect, time in class and for homework, globalization issues, etc. are considered. Enabling environment or the process is the third category. It involves how learning happens, the teaching and learning process (e.g. learning time, teaching methods, assessment and feedback, incentives, class size, etc.), teaching and learning materials, physical infrastructure and facilities, teachers, principals, supervision, etc. that in aggregate can be referred as instructional or school leadership. The last factor refers to the outcomes dimension. It focuses on what learning has actually brought about, as measured by the outcomes of knowledge, skills, competencies, attitudes, values, life skills, creative and emotional skills, and social benefits.

Obviously, there are different factors (teacher, students, students’ homes or family background, school facilities, school environment, etc.) that affect students’ academic achievement and ultimately affect the quality of education (Duflo et al., 2011). To analyze and understand the proper operation of schools with such features contemporary organizational theories emphasize on the importance of the environment that they are situated (Duflo et al., 2012; Hanna & Ryan, 2012). An analysis of any system in an environment without emphasizing the way its parts interact and function is insufficient because school phenomenon are better understood only when the interrelationships among the different factors are understood (Schermerhorn et al., 2002). Accordingly, scholars of organizational management (e.g. Cameron & Green, 2007; Muller-Christ, 2011) recognize such a dynamic interaction of sub-systems in view of systems theory. They categorize the systems approach into closed or opened depending on the relationship of the organization with its environment. According to them, closed systems have limited interactions with their environment and depend minimally on external opinions to determine on the goals and activities of the organization. On the other hand, they explained open systems as naturally interactive beings with two-way relationships. For instance, the interaction between schools and their environment that incorporates students, parents, and schools demonstrate an open system. The systems theory, accordingly, helps principals and teachers to look at the school more broadly and interpret interactions or patterns and events in the school in view of interrelations within the environment.

According to Schermerhorn et al. (2002), open systems such as school systems are influenced by the steadily changing customer expectations and rapidly moving external environment. Schools are taken as open systems that continuously draw material, financial, and human inputs from the environment, transform students into competent and employable workforce, and discharge skilled labor to the external environment. The open systems perspective is, therefore, highly essential for understanding the internal and external environment of schools. According to Bush (2003), Cameron and Green (2009) as well as for Schermerhorn et al. (2002) that is because characteristically schools are social systems that rely on interchanges with the external environment and, at the same time, seek support to address their objectives across their highly permeable boundary. In general, open systems encompass inputs and other factors from the external environment, the transformation process, the communication system, outputs, and the feedback as a way of reenergizing the system. In view of open systems perspective, thus, effective schools are in an uninterrupted interaction with their environment for constant adjustment and change to meet the demands of customers and stakeholders in the environment (Bush, 2003). Accordingly, the main constructs identified from the literature focusing on students’ academic achievement and that in turn ensures education quality and that of the systems theory of organizations are combined together to draw the conceptual framework for the current study.

Notwithstanding the different theoretical definitions reviewed by different authorities, according to the systems theory, the input-process-output framework is an overarching model that better explains the conceptual foundation to explore the current study (Cheng, 2005). The framework demonstrates the various factors related to a range of quality factors that indicated the three-way relationship among learners, teachers and materials, all of which lie at the heart of the education quality. The framework has incorporated three major components (inputs, the process, and the output). Besides systems theory, consistently, the total quality management (TQM), a powerful tool that focuses on enhancing school effectiveness, perceives quality of education as a function of input, process and output (Cheng, 2005). According to Cheng, the TQM model of quality assurance emphasizes on the management of interactions among the different elements in the school, school community, and the teaching learning process to eventually produce an output that meets the strategic needs of stakeholders. According to Sallis (2002) and Tenner and Detoro (as cited in Cheng, 2005) that is, in turn, because TQM perceives that the improvement of some aspects of quality management process is inadequate to ascertain quality in performance. That means, according to the model, the key elements of TQM in schools include strategic stakeholder focus, continuous process improvement, and the total involvement and empowerment of the school community (Sallis, 2002).

A closer examination of related data in the document in Amhara regional education office also portray that about 26.4% of students have scored below 50% in the exam. The same source, besides, informs a consequential spillover effect of the quality of education at the secondary level. For example, the pass rate of secondary school students in the Ethiopian General Secondary Education Certificate Examination (EGSECE) has been diminishing in the past three years (2014–2016), i.e. 46.2, 45.0, and 32.5% consecutively. Altogether, data on student achievement informs that the quality of education in the region is far from the desired.

A study conducted by the Amhara Education office in 2016 also revealed valuable findings that strongly imply the need to improve quality assurance practices. The findings of the study conducted on the basis of a standard test prepared at regional level reveals that students’ achievement was very low (Amhara Regional Education Office, 2016). For instance, only 19.9% have scored 50% and above in every subject. That means, 80.1% students did not meet the planned requirement (scoring 50% and above in every subject) of the bureau. About 12.3% students scored below 50% in all subjects. About 41.7% students scored below 50% in mean scores. Only 29.9, 50.7 and 46.3% students have scored 50% and above in English, Mathematics and Sciences in the test consecutively. Only 58.3% scored 50% and above in aggregate, i.e. including Mother Tongue, Environment Science and Civic and Ethical Education. That means, nearly 43% of the students have scored below 50%. That is because it was observed that this score by itself is in all cases much higher than the study test scores. In contrast, the study found out from documentary review that the school exam results of those students involved in the study are much higher than their test score results. These altogether provoked the need toward conducting a wider and deeper investigation on the problem and hence is the need for this study.

In general, in spite of a significant commitment and investment to improve the quality of education at all levels by the government, there have been pressing challenges to be addressed with respect to quality and its consequences in the education system of the State of Amhara. To rescue such a highly eroded quality environment of education in the region it requires a rigorous research activity focusing on all dimensions of factors related to students’ academic achievement. In this respect the key components of the sector such as teacher motivation, teacher student-relationship, supply of facilities and material resources, instruction practices, parental contribution, variables at student level and the overall integrity and commitment in the sector need to be examined turn by turn.

Thus, the quality problem of secondary education in the current study area may be attributed to several factors operating both at student level, family level and school environments. However, there lacks systematic investigation of the nature and type of factors that cause academic performance and the relationships and interactions they create. Moreover, there is limited understanding on the extent of contribution of various groups of factors in influencing the quality of secondary education in the region that in turn resulted in students’ academic achievement. More specifically, there is a gap in the present literature that whether at student level or family level or school level factors are more significant in influencing students’ academic achievement in the study area. Accordingly, this research work has identified all the major factors found within and outside school compounds that affect the quality of secondary education in general and grade ten in particular in the area under consideration. The main purpose of the study is, therefore, to investigate the main determinants that affect the academic achievement of grade ten students in the State of Amhara secondary school in general and grade ten students in particular. However, to the best of the researcher’s reading, almost researches in this area are scant. In our country Ethiopia, the assumption that students’ success or failure in their academic achievement are attributable to only students by ignoring the roles of different parties such as parents, teachers, school environments and the likes. These assumptions need to be verified by the current study. The felt need of the current research is to disprove these assumptions.

Research questions

1. To what extent do demographic factors predict students’ academic achievement?

2. To what extent do student level factors predict students’ academic achievement?

3. To what extent do family level factors predict students’ academic achievement?

4. To what extent do teacher related variables predict students’ academic achievement?

5. To what extent do school resources predict students’ academic achievement?

Materials and methods

Study design

The current study was conducted by using correlational design. Correlational design was used because it suits to the nature of the problem and the general population under consideration.

Study site

The study was carried out at secondary school grade ten students at Debre Markos. Debre markos is located in Eastern Gojjam zone in Amhara region about 300 kms far from Addis Ababa. It is also about 264 kms far from Bahir Dar, capital of Amhara Regional state.

Participants

The participants of the current study were Menkorer secondary school grade ten students in Debre Markos town. The participants of the study were 461 grade ten students.

Sampling techniques

The sampling technique employed to select participants was probabilistic sampling technique. The researcher used systematic random sampling technique to obtain the necessary sample subjects.

Sample size determination

To determine the sample size of participants, single population proportion sample size formula formulated by Naing et al. (2006) has been employed: $$\text{N}=\left({\mathrm{z}}^2\mathrm{p}\left(1\text{\hspace{0.17em}‐\hspace{0.17em}}\mathrm{p}\right)\right)/{\mathrm{d}}^2$$

Where n = sample size, Z = Z statistic for the level of confidence, p = expected prevalence or proportion (in proportion of one; if 50%, p = 0.5), and d = precision (in proportion of one; if 5%, d = 0.05). In this case, the confidence interval was set at a 95% that gives a corresponding z-value of 1.96. In line with Naing et al. (2006) the values for the expected proportion (p) and precision (d) were set at 0.5 and 0.05, respectively.

Using this formula, the size of sample subjects was n = 384. To avoid loss of sampling an insurance factor of 20% was considered to obtain a total sample of 461.

Data gathering tools

Both primary and secondary data were utilized in this study. Primary data were obtained from students. All the data collection instruments have been prepared, administered and conducted in Amharic, the predominantly spoken language in the entire study area. Students’ academic achievement was obtained using document analysis (record office).

Validity and reliability

The original English measuring instruments were developed and validated in another culture. Hence, there was a need to evaluate to what extent the scales were relevant to Ethiopian culture. Thus, a panel of experts participated to examine all the statements carefully and rate which items are relevant to Ethiopian culture. For better understanding of items and more reliable results, the instruments were translated from English into Amharic by experts from the department of Amharic Language and back translated into English by experts from department of foreign language in Bahir dar University. Finally, both experts participated to check authenticity of the two versions. Two psychologists evaluated translation and back translation. All the items were found to convey similar meanings in both versions of the scales. So the Amharic translation was accepted and the scale was finalized. Face validity and content validity were checked by a panel of experts. After these steps, pilot study was conducted and psychometric properties of instruments (Cronbach’s alpha Coefficient, Inter-correlations) were estimated at an acceptable level.

Variables

Predictor variables

Demographic variables

Residence (Urban = 0, Rural = 1), Gender (Male = 1, Female = 0), Family structure (Both Biological parents = 6, Biological mother and step father =5, Biological father and step mother = 4, Biological mother only =3, Biological father ′only = 2, other living arrangements = 1)

Student level

Self-concept, self-esteem, student attitude, student study habit and students’ perception to school environment

Family level

Parental involvement, parent-child relationship, parental follow up, and parents’ interest for education

School level

Teacher motivation, teacher-student relationship, teaching method, assessment technique, facilities and infrastructure, material resources and consumables

Criterion variable

Academic achievement measured continuously.

Procedures of data collection

To enter into the study area, primarily, letters of permission were received from Bahir dar University college of Education and behavioral Sciences, Psychology department to Debre Markos city Education Beauru. Following this, the researcher received cooperation letter from the city administration Education office to the selected school. The researcher requested the participants to get their informed consent. The researcher explained the purpose and objectives of the study to the participant and received informed consent. The data collection did not interfere with classroom sessions. In schools, where it was convenient, participants were requested to sit down in their classrooms and were guided by the investigator together with the assistant data collectors on how to fill in the questionnaires. Participant students filled in the questionnaires being in their regular classrooms and seats on their free time. It took 30–35 minutes to complete the questionnaire.

Data analysis methods

Both descriptive and inferential statistical techniques have been employed in this respect. The frequencies and percentages were the descriptive statistics employed to analyze the data obtained from the questionnaires. The inferential statistics has been employed to facilitate the identification of important patterns, to make more meaningful analysis and more sound generalizations (Cozby & Bates, 2012; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013). To that effect, hierarchical multivariate linear regression was employed. Hierarchical multivariate linear regression was used to determine the relative importance of each predictor variables on the criterion variable. As usual, significance tests were examined at alpha level of 0.05.

Ethical aspects

Ethical approval was obtained from the College of Education and Behavioral Sciences, Bahir Dar University. All participants gave both oral and written consent after the purpose of the study was explained by the researcher. The written consent was approved by the ethics committee. The participants were told to skip item/s or totally decline from filling the questionnaire if they do feel uncomfortable. Moreover, the participants were informed by the researcher abbreviations and pseudo names are used for anonymity and their responses are confidential before the data were collected.

Results

Among the study participants, 241 (52.3%) of students came from rural areas whereas 220 (47.7%) reported they came from urban area (Table 1). Among the study participants, 238 (51.6%) participants were male students whereas 223 (48.4%) were female students.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics displaying the demographic characteristics of participants.

		Frequency	Percent
Residence	Rural	241	52.3
	Urban	220	47.7
Gender	Male	238	51.6
	Female	223	48.4
Family Structure	Both biological parents	326	70.7
	Biological mother and step father	26	5.6
	Biological father and step mother	17	3.7
	Biological mother only	51	11.1
	Biological father ′only	10	2.2
	Other living arrangements	31	6.7

In relation to family structure, 326 (70.7%) of the participants reported that they live with both biological parents, 26 (5.6%) reported they live with biological mother and step father, 17 (3.7%) reported they live with biological father and step mother, 51 (11.1) of participants reported that they live with biological mother only, 10 (2.2%) demonstrated that they live with biological father only and 31 (6.7%) reported that they live with other living arrangements (Table 2).

Table 2. Hierarchical multivariate regression analysis of study variables in relation to student’s grade ten academic achievement.

Variables	Model 1	Model 2	Model 3	Model 4	Model 5
Residence	−0.205**	−0.112**	−0.021	−0.012	−0.010
Gender	0.210**	0.182**	0.130*	0.043	0.037
Family structure	0.292**	0.081*	0.032	0.022	0.015
Self-concept		0.097**	0.044*	0.031	0.029
Self-esteem		0.114**	0.102**	0.101*	0.096*
Student attitude		0.143**	0.122**	0.121**	0.119**
Student study habit		0.241**	0.201**	0.195**	0.192**
Students perception of school environment		0.101*	0.042	0.027	0.024
parental involvement			0.131**	0.129**	0.102*
Relationship with parents			0.034	0.021	0.010
Parental follow up			0.152**	0.138*	0.125*
Parents’ interest for education			0.088*	0.074*	0.058
Teachers’ motivation to teach				0.062*	0.031
Teacher-student relationship				0.124**	0.116**
Teaching method				0.024	0.012
Assessment technique				0.214**	0.197**
Facilities and infrastructure					0.016
Material resources and consumables					0.117**
R²	6.2	31.8	42.1	49.5	53.6
▲R²	6.2	25.6	10.3	7.4	4.1
F	10.22**	51.461**	49.231**	25.601**	7.021*

* p < .05; **p < .01.

Note: Numbers indicated correspond to the variables in each model are standardized beta weights.

In Model 1, when demographic variables were entered in the model, students’ residence (β = −0.205, p=.000, urban = 0, rural = 1, ref.category = rural) indicating students who live in urban areas scored better in academic achievement than rural students, gender (β = 0.210, p<.005, Male = 1, Female = 0, ref.category = Female) which indicates male students outsmarted female students in academic achievement and family structure (β = 0.292, p<.002, both biological parents = 1, others = 0, ref.category = others) significantly predicted students’ academic achievement. This indicates students who live with both biological parents outperformed students who live a combination of other family constellations.

In Model 2, where student level variables were entered, almost all the variables were significantly associated with grade eight students’ academic achievement. That is, except students’ perception about school environment (β = 0.102, p<.049) that predicted student’s academic achievement marginally, self-concept (β = 0.097, p < .008), self-esteem (β = 0.114, p = .000), students’ attitude towards learning (β = 0.143, p=.000), and students’ study habit (β = 0.241, p=.000) predicted grade ten student’s academic achievement significantly. That is, as students developed positive self-concept, self-esteem, attitude towards their learning and have effective study habits, they performed better in their academics. Consistently, despite weak its contribution is, students are good at their academic performance when they have positive perception towards school principals. Moreover, demographic variables that were significant in the previous model remained significant in this model too, despite their effects were controlled. In this model, in general, student related variables shared 25.6% the variance in students’ academic achievement.

The role of family related variables on student achievement was treated in Model 3. Results in this model showed that parental involvement (β = 0.131, p<.001), parental follow up (β = 0.152, p<.008), and parental interest to their children’s education (β = 0.088, p<.032) were significantly associated with student’s grade ten academic achievement whereas parental relationship with their children did not predict it. Besides, some of the variables which were significant on Model 2 also remained significant in this model. In aggregate family related variables contributed 10.3% of the variance in students’ academic achievement.

The next model, Model 4, comprises teacher related variables. In this respect it was found out that teachers’ motivation (β = 0.062, p<.042), teacher student relationship (β = 0.124, p=.000), and teachers’ assessment techniques (β = 0.214, p=.000) significantly predicted grade ten student’s academic achievement. That is, when teachers are motivated for their work, have a closer and healthy relationship with their students, and employ valid and appropriate assessment techniques the performance and academic achievement of their students’ improves. However, in this model, teacher’s teaching method did not predict student’s academic achievement significantly. This shows that students’ academic achievement does not vary across various teaching methods of teachers. Teacher related variables in aggregate accounted for 7.4% of the variance in grade ten student’s academic achievement.

Model 5 subsumes school facilities and infrastructure and material resources and consumables. In this case, only material resources and consumables (β = 0.117, p<.001) significantly predicted grade ten student’s academic achievement. That is, whenever schools fulfill the necessary material resources and consumables, schools are capable of delivering what is expected from them and that in turn helped teachers to focus on their teaching learning activities and ultimately students are benefited and scored higher marks. In contrast, facilities and infrastructure did not significantly predict grade ten student’s academic achievement. The variables embraced in Model 5 in sum explained 4.1% of the variance in grade ten student’s academic achievement. All the variables in models 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 collectively explained 53.6% of the variance in grade ten student’s academic achievement.

Discussion

Attempts were made to examine the extent of contribution of variables at the student level, family level and school level for academic achievement of students. The analysis was done by entering variables at each level hierarchically to see the relative importance of variables at each level. Thus, in this case, students’ residence was significantly predicting students’ academic achievement. As a result, students who live in urban areas outperformed students of their counter parts. There were dozens of studies, which go in line with the finding of the current study. For instance, Sunday and Olatunde (2011); Dutta et al. (2016); Ellah and Ita (2017) revealed that urban secondary school students are better in academic achievement than rural secondary school students.

In Ethiopian cultural contexts, it is hypothesized that rural students are out of access in books, internet, and different learning materials. Besides, parents of rural students are uneducated farmers with low socioeconomic status and are not able to offer the necessary support for their children because of awareness. In supporting these, literatures suggested possible explanation for the existence of this condition which showed that children of high-educated parents were more successful than parents of their counterparts (Ataç, 2019). Other possible hypothesis is the existence of the difference in educational achievement between rural and urban areas involves the difference in student characteristics and the difference in school characteristics (e.g., Echazarra & Radinger, 2019). For the Sub-Saharan African regions, studies attested similar findings, which explain that the gap is attributed to the difference in student and school resources (Burger, 2011; Zhang, 2006).

Academic achievement in this study varies across gender groups. As a result, male students scored better than female students in their academic achievements. Studies in the past were in line with the findings of the current study. For instance, in the USA researchers have argued that males perform better than females in academics (Kisigot et al., 2021). Besides, a study by Joseph et al. (2015), similarly, claim that male students had slightly better performance as compared to their female counterparts. Although, there are large disparities in cultures among other countries in the world and Ethiopia, findings in both nations have informed us similarities. In relation to the current study, the possible reasons for this difference might be attributable to societal cultures. In Ethiopia, females most of the times are expected to perform household chores whereas males are free from these activities and hence male students have enough study times compared to their counterparts. However, gender differences in academic achievement is controversial, there are studies showing mixed findings. Some studies suggest female students outperformed male students (Barrow et al., 2009; Thiele et al. 2016 as cited in Crowth & Briant, 2022) while others suggest no gender differences in academic achievement (DeBerard et al. 2004 as cited in Crowth & Briant, 2022; De Winter & Dodou 2011 as cited in Crowth & Briant, 2022).

In the current study, family structure had significantly influenced students’ academic achievement. That is, students who live with both biological parents outperformed students of a combination of other family constellations. The finding of this study is in line with findings of the previous studies. For instance, according to Kurdek & Sinclair (1988 as cited in Bartolome, 2021), students in two-parent nuclear families had superior academic achievement and fewer troublesome school conduct than students in either mother custody or stepfather families. In addition, Hampden-Thompson (2013) and Sun and Li (2011) argue that students that grow up in a single-parent home typically result in a lower academic level of achievement. The assumption for the existence of these disparities is students from both biological parents receive more material, psychological and emotional supports from their family than students from a combination of other family configurations.

In relation to student related salient variables; such as Self-concept, Self-esteem, Student attitude, Student study habit, and Students perception to principals explained large variance in academic achievement. For instance, the variance that is accounted for by student related variables was 25.6% followed by family related factors (10.3%), teacher related factors (7.4%), and school resources (4.1%). The possible reason why student related variables had great variance is that they are proximal variables to students’ academic performance as compared to other level variables. Student related variables predicted academic achievement of grade ten students. The findings go in line with the findings of previous studies. For instance, Marcela and Mala (2016), in their study confirmed that learner’s attitudes toward school were a determinant factor that predicts their academic achievement implying a positive attitude gives rise to positive results while a negative attitude turns out a negative result. In similar manner, self-esteem predicts students’ academic achievement. Previous studies consolidated the current study for instance; researchers (Tohid et al., 2014) asserted that self-esteem affects academic achievement, whereas others (e.g. Alves-Martins et al., 2002; Baumeister et al., 2003) argued that self-esteem is rather affected by academic achievement. So, it can be deduced that while self-esteem affects academic achievement, it is affected by academic achievement demonstrating bidirectional relationships. In the same vein, self-concept predicted students’ academic achievement which is in line with previous studies. For example, Punithavathi (2011) and Carrillo-López et al. (2022) examined self-concept and academic achievement of students found a significant relationship between self-concept and academic achievement. Boulter (2002) confirmed self-concept is predictor of academic achievement. Moreover, not only self-concept predicted academic performance but also, it is found to be strongly and positively related to general achievement (Enam et al., 1970).

Students’ study habit predicted academic achievement of grade ten students. This finding is supported by other studies. For instance, study habit is an important factor of learning that strongly determines student achievement (Odiri, 2015). Similarly, other different study results (including Adeninyi, 2011; Esia-Donkoh et al., 2017; Lawrence et al., 2014; Mayiyo & Siahi, 2015) have found out that study habit and academic performance of students are directly related, with study habit influencing student achievement more than other factors do. According to Uju and Paul (2017) students cannot succeed without good study habits. In this study, perception of students about their school environment marginally predicted students’ academic achievement. In this respect, there is also a growing body of research that supports the current finding, which revealed that the physical learning environment of schools predicted students’ academic achievement (Barrett et al., 2015).

As we all know that family setting is the foundation of every child’s overall developmental outcomes. In this study, family level variables also contributed the second largest variance in students’ academic achievement next to student level variables. As a result, family involvement, and family follow up, parental interest to their children’s education, though not significantly predicting students’ academic achievement (parent-child relationship) explained 10.3% of the variance in students’ academic achievement. There are previous studies which further consolidated the findings of the current study. For instance, research findings by (e.g. Mutodi & Ngirande, 2014; Obico, 2015; Taylor et al., 2004) convey that parental involvement is strongly associated with positive behavioral development and mastery of subject matter by students. On top of the above, a meta-analysis by Jeynes (2007) showed a strong positive relationship between parental support and academic achievement of children. Still others (such as by Epstein, 2011; Meeuwisse et al., 2011; Mutodi & Ngirande, 2014; Otani, 2017) revealed children scoring higher grades both in classroom assessments and standardized tests, demonstrating improved behavior both at home and school and displaying better social skills and adaptation to school environment when parents are involved in their schools and education.

While many research results as well (e.g. Burcu & Sungur, 2009; Castro et al., 2015; Fantuzzo et al., 2004; Jang et al., 2021; Lee & Bowen, 2006; McNeal, 2015; Wang & Sheikh-Khalil, 2014) support the claim that parental involvement leads to improved academic achievement, in contrast other research outputs (such as Caro, 2018; El Nokali et al., 2010; Galindo & Sheldon, 2012; Shumow et al., 2011; Verónica et al., 2018) signify lower or insignificant or no effect of parental involvement on student achievement at all. Hence, we found that mixed findings between parental involvement and student academic achievement in various studies as explained above.

It is indubitable that teachers do have significant role on students’ academic outcomes. In the current study, teacher’s motivation to teach, teacher-student relationship and assessment techniques predicted students’ academic achievement. There are studies, which support the findings of the current study. In this respect, Omodan and Tsotetsi (2018) revealed the existence of a significant relationship between teacher-student relationship and the academic performance of students. Teacher-student relationships based on mutual respect, closeness, caring, and warmth facilitate student achievement (Hamre & Pianta, 2001; Hughes et al., 2005; Shakir & Kiazzai, 2023). In similar manner, it is incontestable that incentives and the consequent motivation influence people’s attitude and performance at work (Iliya & Ifeoma, 2015). Hence, teacher motivation is functions of teachers’ desire or interest to effectively run and accomplish their activity ultimately help students to score higher marks. That means their motivation determines their involvement or reluctance in the teaching activity. Not limited to this, assessment technique affects students’ academic achievement. In line with the findings of the current study, a study revealed that improvements in assessment techniques have a positive impact on student performance (Basera, 2019; Reynolds & Hancock, 2010), however, there are studies which contradicted the findings of the current study. For instance, Friday et al. (2006) revealed that the implementation of different assessment techniques have not resulted in improved students’ academic performance. Thus, it is inconclusive to say assessment technique necessarily affects students’ achievement.

Facilities and infrastructure did not significantly predict students’ academic achievement in this study whereas material resources and consumables significantly predicted students’ academic achievement. In this case, Facilities and infrastructure indicated different facilities, student textbooks, teacher guide, furniture, blackboard, laboratory equipment and furniture, chemicals, charts and any other material that can be used for teaching and learning. These are very important in addressing the quality of education because they help to meet the goals of the curriculum and assist teachers to achieve and set lesson objectives (Nkosha & Mwanza, 2009; Adebulc & Adeusi, 2017). Savasci and Tomul (2013), for instance, found out the existence of a strong relationship between the educational resources and student achievement and Ndlovu (2018), consistently, suggests that value and more attention should be given to both material and human resources at school level because he has found out that resource supply by schools plays significant roles on student test scores, However, these findings are contrary to the findings of the current study.

In line with the findings of the current study, Bakari et al. (2014) and Ndlovu (2018) argue that learning is fruitful only when there are adequate quantity and quality of physical resources as well as modest learning environment, clean display place for pupils’ work and adequate space for both pupils and learning materials. These writers argue that unattractive school buildings, crowded classrooms, absence of playing ground and surroundings that have no aesthetic beauty can contribute to poor academic performance. Cooper (2017) and Ndlovu (2018), besides, noted that better facilities and resources in a school lead to better performance in examinations.

Conclusions

The current study sheds light on the importance of individual, familial, and school related factors on students’ academic achievement under the present context of secondary schools in the State of Amhara. Although some mixed results were obtained in some of the variables, the majority results of the present investigation were in agreement with the findings of previous studies. As a result, student related factors showed strong link with academic achievement of students. In similar manner, family factors played pivotal role in predicting students’ academic achievement. Not limited to the aforementioned factors, school related factors predicted students’ academic achievement. Hence, the assumptions in Ethiopian community, students’ academic successes or failures are attributable to students problems by overlooking other factors outside of students has been disproved. Thus, parents and school community need to discharge their responsibility to enhance students’ academic achievements.

Ethical approval

Ethical clearance was obtained from the Review Board of the Institute of Educational and Behavioral Sciences of Bahir Dar University. Informed consent was obtained from all participants after explaining the purpose of study

Acknowledgements

I thanked the school directors for their permission to collect the data. I also thanked student participants for their willingness to participate in filling the questionnaire

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Data availability statement

The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available at present. The author did not receive consent from participants to share the data on the web, but, will be available from the author on reasonable request.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Demeke Wolie Ambaye

Demeke Wolie Ambaye, PhD, has an interest in quantitative methodological approach to conduct research in various areas. Different research works had been published by utilizing quantitative methods in the past. Areas of the research activities focused on student achievement, child development and adolescent development with their corresponding associated factors. Thus, I would like to continue my research activities by using quantitative approach as my skill in statistical concepts allowed me to do so.