Advancing women entrepreneurship in a developmental state: an agenda for higher education institutions

Abstract

South Africa’s public sector has launched a variety of gender-focused schemes aimed at empowering women entrepreneurs over the years. However, emerging literature suggests that the efficacy of these programmes is constrained. Consequently, alternative approaches might be needed to address women entrepreneurs’ concerns. Previous studies have not explored the potential of higher education institutions as custodians of knowledge and innovation to promote female entrepreneurship in the country. As a result, this study employs a semi-systematic literature review to explore the influence of stakeholders’ initiatives in advancing women’s entrepreneurship in South Africa. Additionally, the Web of Science database was utilised, which initially yielded 82 articles, after applying exclusion criteria, 53 papers were obtained as the final corpus. The research findings indicate that the South African government, at various levels, has vibrant programmes and initiatives geared toward developing women’s entrepreneurship; however, these programmes’ effectiveness is perpetually undermined by several underlying bottlenecks as highlighted in this study. Moreover, the findings reveal that government initiatives are at the forefront of women’s empowerment efforts and that higher education institutions play a peripheral role. To motivate the higher education sector to embrace its role as an agent of change in society, the authors concluded the paper by proposing a university-based women’s entrepreneurship framework. The proposed framework, which prioritizes female inclusivity in the context of higher education, has the potential to cultivate an environment conducive to nurturing entrepreneurial aspirations in women.

Keywords:

• Higher education institutions
• patriarchal state
• South Africa
• sustainable development
• women entrepreneurs

REVIEWING EDITOR:

• Stephen Darwin
• Universidad Alberto Hurtado
• Chile

SUBJECTS:

• Theories of Learning
• Higher Education
• Research Methods in Education

1. Introduction

Women empowerment is pivotal for long-term socioeconomic progress and advancement of societies (United Nations, 2016). This perhaps clarifies the reason for its inclusion as a key component of the United Nations’ sustainable development goals. According to contemporary literature, women have the potential to make a significant contribution to nation-building (Ajani et al., 2021; Apere & Uche, 2021; Mbukanma & Strydom, 2022), particularly through job creation and expanding the overall economic performance (Corner, 2008; Moloto & Muchie, 2023). As a result, women’s entrepreneurship has gained increasing scholarly attention around the world in recent years (Madawala et al., 2023; Yap et al., 2023). This paper offers an objective scrutiny of the contribution of various stakeholders to the progress of women entrepreneurship in South Africa and proposes a framework that could prompt higher education institutions to tackle the entrepreneurial gender gap in their domains. In other words, increasing the participation of female entrepreneurs in economic activities and supporting them in overcoming barriers to their businesses are essential to growth. Similarly, Hechavarría and Ingram (2019) claim that increasing the economic engagement of women in entrepreneurship adds value to society’s variety of human capital, generates employment, and increases gross domestic product.

In view of the foregoing, the government, non-governmental organisations, and higher education institutions have provided various sorts of support to women entrepreneurs over the years. By engaging these stakeholders, women-owned firms are anticipated to thrive (Nambiar et al., 2020), access mentoring and networking opportunities (Okeke-Uzodike et al., 2018), and acquire the essential skills and knowledge required to initiate their entrepreneurial pursuit (Irene, 2017).

In spite of the well-documented gains of women entrepreneurship in literature, gender gap is conspicuously apparent in the field of entrepreneurship, with female entrepreneurs often falling behind their male counterparts (Nyakudya et al., 2018; Snellman & Solal, 2023). Moreover, due to South Africa’s historical legacy of racial segregation and repressive background, many black women endure the mindset of subservience (Bentancor, 2022). This reflects the extent to which traditional gender roles rooted in patriarchy persist in South Africa. Similarly, Ahl and Marlow (2012) identified a gender bias in the entrepreneurship landscape, indicating that the rhetoric underlying entrepreneurial depiction is inherently male. Several studies have also been conducted on the significance of gender relations in entrepreneurial ventures in India, Oman, Mali, Sweden and the United States, which have brought scholars attention to diverse limiting factors (Ghouse et al., 2021; Nulleshi & Kalonaityte, 2022; Sharma, 2018; Shelby Rosette et al., 2016). In other words, the limitations faced by women in entrepreneurship are not exclusive to South Africa; they exist in various regions as well (Ghouse et al., 2019). Nonetheless, South Africa is renowned for its extreme patriarchal expectations (Aneke et al., 2021).

From a global perspective, the challenges faced by women-led enterprises were further exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic, with 37% of female entrepreneurs globally reporting difficulty in accessing capital, alongside the additional responsibilities of domestic chores (OECD, 2021). In congruence, women-owned firms in the United States were disproportionately affected by the pandemic, with 25% of them closing down, compared to 20% of firms held by males (McKinsey, 2021). The situation is similar in the European Union, with women-led enterprises more likely to have cut their personnel or temporarily discontinued operations during the epidemic (Koltai et al., 2020).

Analogously, women entrepreneurs in South Africa face numerous challenges which include gender stereotypes that restrict their ability to participate fully in economic activities (World Bank, 2020). A report that emanates from the World Bank indicates that only 18% of African women have access to financial services, and women-owned businesses receive only 1% of available credit at the advent of the pandemic (World Bank, 2020). In a similar fashion, a review of the works of various scholars, such as Ge et al. (2022), Torres et al. (2023), as well as Rahayu and Ellyanawati (2023) indicates that the COVID-19 pandemic has had a more crippling impact on women entrepreneurs in developing nations, including South Africa.

In an attempt to address this anomaly, the South African government, as a key stakeholder in this regard, has consistently introduced several programmes, such as the UN Women South Africa Multi-Country Office, The Flagship Programme, Isivande Women’s Fund, NAMA Women Enterprise, and Bavumile Skills Development Programme. These initiatives were established to foster gender equality and enhance women’s economic standing as well as address the structural barriers that women entrepreneurs face (Dzomonda & Fatoki, 2019; Hills, 2015; Okeke-Uzodike et al., 2018).

Moreover, these initiatives, according to Debnath et al. (2019) were established to alleviate cultural and societal barriers that inhibit entrepreneurial drive amongst women. In line with this reasoning, Ghouse et al. (2017) affirm that sociocultural concerns restrict women entrepreneurial success. To achieve this objective, skills-based training opportunities were offered to women entrepreneurs in addition to facilitating access to credit, land, and other resources necessary for sustainable development (Foss et al., 2019). However, the works of Aneke et al. (2021) and Rahman et al. (2022) suggest that a variety of institutional limitations increasingly impede government efforts to revitalise women’s entrepreneurship in South Africa.

In addition to government efforts, several stakeholders, such as financial institutions, academic institutions, business associations, media, and communication platforms have also strived to aid women entrepreneurs, but their efforts seem to have had only a limited impact (Aneke et al., 2021). In an attempt to address gender disparities and inadequate representation of women in entrepreneurship, HEIs are gradually intervening to rectify these issues via a pilot program, ‘Student Women Economic Empowerment Programme’ (SWEEP), designed to empower female students innovatively (Bvuma & Marnewick, 2020). However, the scope of ‘SWEEP’ is limited to the University of Johannesburg and the University of Kwazulu Natal, thus much work remains to be done to broaden the initiative’s scope across the country and guarantee that institutions act as agents of change in their host communities (Olumuyiwa et al., 2023).

Numerous research endeavours have aimed to devise governmental approaches aimed at fostering female entrepreneurship within the South African context (Chinomona & Maziriri, 2015; Hills, 2015; Irene, 2017; Nyakudya et al., 2018; Okeke-Uzodike et al., 2018). This study, however, embraces a multi-stakeholder approach, identifying the shortcomings of the existing model for promoting women’s entrepreneurship, and developing a novel strategy for addressing them. In light of the above, the central questions that arise to steer this review are as follows: (1) How do the government’s social development initiatives impact women entrepreneurs in South Africa? (2) What is the significance of higher education institutions in empowering women entrepreneurs in South Africa? (3) What model could be devised to motivate universities to actively support and promote the advancement of women in entrepreneurial endeavours?

2. Institutional theory

As academic interest in women’s entrepreneurship studies continues to grow, various ideas have emerged that provide insight into how organizations’ efforts have impacted women entrepreneurs in various ways. A variety of relevant theories, such as feminist theory, resource-based view framework, and institutional theory have been developed. The institutional theory is most relevant to the context of this review because it focuses on how institutional factors influence women’s propensity to engage in entrepreneurial activities (Bruton et al., 2010). An institutional theory provides a framework for analyzing the factors that enable and restrict female entrepreneurs in relation to their effectiveness within broader institutional contexts (Zhai & Su, 2019).

A key concept in institutional theory is how institutions affect and are influenced by pillars of society (Osinubi, 2020). In line with this reasoning, the current study found that South African society relies excessively on the government to support women entrepreneurs (Vyas-Doorgapersad & Bangani, 2020), whereas higher education institutions should play a complementary role as guardians of information and inventions. Also, this institutional theory supports the proposition for businesses, governments, and higher education institutions collaborate to promote women entrepreneurs in South Africa to achieve synergistic advantages through the interaction between institutional forces. The theory, according to Williams and Shahid (2016) offers a platform for assessing the extent to which cultural shifts and robust institutional setup could entrench gender inclusivity in higher education institutions. The foregoing indicates that the institutional theory provides a framework for evaluating the institutional factors and interactions among numerous stakeholders influencing women’s entrepreneurship in South Africa.

3. Materials and methods

The study explored issues revolving around stakeholders’ contribution to women entrepreneurship in South Africa thus defining a framework that may stimulate higher education institutions to play a significant role in empowering women entrepreneurs. The research employed a systematic literature review methodology (SLR), which involved the meticulous evaluation, assessment, and incorporation of relevant literature regarding the subject matter. This review delved into secondary data from 53 sources, such as government documents, international statistics, articles, peer-reviewed academic journals, and books. The choice of the systematic review technique was based on Snyder’s (2019, pp. 1–4) opinion that it is one of the adoptable methods for obtaining data for a study, particularly when it relates to social science-related research. Scholars, such as Uleanya et al. (2022, p. 3), and Baumeister corroborate Snyder’s (2019) view and describe it as a robust technique of literature assessment. In other words, systematic literature review methods are considered to provide crucial possibilities for critical examinations of diverse views and ideologies of various scholars on a specific matter, particularly in social science-related research investigations. As a result, the works of many scholars on the matter were prioritised, examined, and utilised for the research.

The following benchmarks were observed during the process of conducting this Systematic SLR:

1. Only peer-reviewed papers in the English language were considered for inclusion among the chosen articles.

2. The Web of Science database was utilized to identify pertinent literature.

3. Due to the scarcity of peer-reviewed articles in this regard, relevant books, conference proceedings, and Government white papers were utilized by the authors as part of the review.

4. The search encompassed the terms ‘women entrepreneurship’ OR ‘female entrepreneurship’ AND ‘sustainable development’ OR ‘SDG-5’ OR ‘Gender gap’ OR ‘sustainability’ AND ‘issues’ OR ‘challenges’ OR ‘limitations’ OR ‘barriers’ AND ‘University’ OR ‘Higher Education’ AND ‘South Africa’ AND ‘patriachal society’. The search was confined to the titles of articles, keywords, and abstracts.

5. The authors sought to scrutinize all relevant articles published between 2013 and 2023, enabling a retrospective examination spanning a decade. This approach facilitated a comprehensive understanding of the historical context and present conditions pertaining to women entrepreneurship in South Africa.

6. Each abstract underwent careful evaluation for relevance, as a result, only materials that closely aligned with the research topic were chosen.

7. Following confirmation of each material’s close relevance, it was downloaded and subjected to a thorough examination as illustrated by Figure 1.

Figure 1. Flowchart with the description of the study selection process for inclusion in the analysis.

Source: Authors own creation.

The Web of Science which is the designated database for this review, has garnered recognition as a highly valuable academic research platform (Mouchrek, 2020). The search was carried out between June 2022 and July 2023, yielding an initial retrieval of 82 research articles. Subsequent application of exclusion criteria refined the corpus to 53 papers that closely aligned with the study’s objectives. The study outcomes are delineated into two segments: firstly, a comprehensive overview of the analysed articles through a descriptive analysis, and secondly, an in-depth descriptive analysis, as depicted below.

4. Descriptive analysis

In this segment, the initial results derived from the systematic review of existing literature are presented. The central articles were allocated according to three specific criteria: chronological order and relevant keywords.

4.1. Time-based distribution of focal articles

Figure 2 illustrates the time-based distribution of focal articles, Notably, the year 2020 stands out with the greatest volume of published articles. The analysis conspicuously signifies a substantial upswing in the volume of articles issued between 2020 and 2023, focusing on matters pertaining to women entrepreneurship in South Africa. In this regard, the notable surge in article production can be ascribed to the pressing demand for institutions of higher learning to act as catalysts for change to build a more sustainable world.

Figure 2. Year of publications.

4.2. Thematic classification of publications

The articles selected for this SLR can be classified into three main thematic categories, as depicted in Figure 3. These include ‘the effect of government programmes on women entrepreneurs’, ‘the weak links in government efforts to salvage women entrepreneurship’, and ‘the influence of non-governmental stakeholders on women entrepreneurs’. It is noteworthy that ‘the effect of government programmes on women entrepreneurs’ represents over half of the total number of articles in our SLR (N = 25, 53%). While ‘The significance of higher education institutions in empowering female entrepreneurs’ (N = 13, 27%) has been researched to a less substantial level. Additionally, the least investigated topic in this regard is ‘the framework required by higher education to advance women entrepreneurship’ (N = 8, 17%).

Figure 3. Thematic classification of selected publications.

4.3. Keywords

In this section, a compilation of the most frequently used terminology in this analysis is presented. As delineated in Table 1, the foremost recurring keyword in the study is ‘women’ which manifests a frequency of one hundred and seventy-eight instances. This is succeeded by the phrase ‘South Africa’ occurring eighty-four times, and subsequently by the phrase ‘entrepreneurs’ which is occurred fifty-two times. The term with the least frequency is ‘sustainable development’ having a total of eleven occurrences.

Table 1. Keyword occurrence analysis.

Keyword	Frequency
Entrepreneurs	52
Sustainable development	11
South Africa	84
Women	178
Stakeholder	14

5. Findings and discussion

The study’s findings, based on an in-depth review of the literature, are offered in response to the following research question: To what extent have South African government initiatives fostered women entrepreneurship within the period of 2013–2023? The findings are presented under the following themes: (1) Effect of government’s social development initiatives on South African women entrepreneurs (2) The significance of higher education institutions in empowering female entrepreneurs. (3) A model devised to motivate universities to actively support and promote the advancement of women in entrepreneurial endeavours.

5.1. Theme 1: Effect of government initiatives on women entrepreneurs

A neo-socialist framework dominates South Africa’s sociopolitical landscape (Cock, 2018), which places government initiatives in social development at the forefront of women’s empowerment efforts (Vyas-Doorgapersad & Bangani, 2020). This could elucidate the widespread belief that the government bears the exclusive responsibility for supporting women entrepreneurs in South Africa (Vossenberg, 2013). As a result, several non-governmental entities, such as financial institutions, academic institutions, commercial organizations, media outlets, and communication platforms appear to play a peripheral role in the initiative to promote women’s entrepreneurship in South Africa (Botha & Neil, 2017). In view of the aforementioned, a critical assessment of the government’s efficacy in fostering women’s entrepreneurship in the country is an imperative.

Several local municipalities, such as Amathole, King Cetswayo, Abaqulusi, Albert Luthuli, Bela Bela, Beaufort West have served as some of the key pillars of support for establishing gender equality in South Africa (Mbukanma & Strydom, 2022), for instance, the Municipalities have increased their procurement expenditure on women-owned enterprises from 4% to 38% (Tukamuhabwa & Namagembe, 2023). As a major player in the domain of women’s empowerment, the South African government has constantly launched several schemes, including the Bavumile Skills Development Programme, the Isivande Women’s Fund, the Flagship Programme, NAMA Women Enterprise, and the UN Women South Africa Multi-Country Office. These initiatives seek to promote gender equality, improve women’s economic status, and eliminate the structural barriers to female entrepreneurship (Dzomonda & Fatoki, 2019; Hills, 2015; Okeke-Uzodike et al., 2018).

The contemporary literature on this topic indicates that various factors play a role in shaping the government’s initiatives to support women’s entrepreneurship in South Africa (Tukamuhabwa & Namagembe, 2023). In line with this reasoning, Lose’s (2016) study found that there have been some successes and failures in government initiatives aimed at boosting SMEs and women-owned businesses. Additionally, the challenge of implementation remains dominant. Barrachina Fernández et al. (2021) and Mandongwe and Jaravaza (2020) found that nepotism and corruption hinder government officials’ ability to implement women entrepreneurship policies. In a similar fashion, Scholars, such as Siddiqui and Jan (2019), Trivedi et al. (2020) submit that South African women-owned SMEs lack access to role models and credible advice, with 94% facing business management issues, such as market share improvement, finance security, and general administration (Sharma & Grewal, 2018).

According to Ajani et al. (2021), Shava and Chinyamurindi (2022) as well as Yousafzai et al. (2021), despite the South African government’s attempts to boost the ecosystem of women entrepreneurs, various institutional challenges and bureaucratic obstacles continue to stymie its growth. Similarly, Mandishaya (2015) and Sharma and Grewal (2018), opine that 55% of women entrepreneurs view networking as a crucial part of business success, however, only 17% are part of entrepreneurial networks.

The results of this SLR indicate that, in spite of the government’s efforts to rescue women-owned firms, the majority of women entrepreneurs in South Africa are still economically vulnerable. This notion coincides with the views of Moreno (2016), as well as Ogundana et al. (2021), who submit that inadequate capacity, low skill levels, poor financial literacy, poverty, and lack of mentors are among the key constraints facing women entrepreneurs. In congruence, a review of the works of scholars, such as Rena (2016), Seenivasan (2014), as well as Jolović (2019) indicates that the majority of South African women entrepreneurs are concentrated in micro and survival-level entrepreneurial activities, such as cottage businesses, roadside hawking, retail, and subsistence farming as a result of the country’s harsh legislative environments.

In contrast to the foregoing, Epezagne (2022) argues that women entrepreneurs often mishandle their business capital due to naivete and a lack of entrepreneurial skills. Above all, As the current scenario suggests, promoting women entrepreneurs in South Africa should not only fall under the purview of the government; rather, it calls for the concerted efforts of all relevant parties to produce favourable outcomes (Al-Qahtani et al., 2022; Bentancor, 2022; Ingalagi et al., 2021; Irene, 2017; Ojediran & Anderson, 2020; Setini et al., 2020; Stefan et al., 2021). Table 2 presents a summary of the literature analysed in this study.

Table 2. Summary of reviewed works of literature.

Area covered	Search item(s)	Study
GP–1	Inadequate implementation of pro-women entrepreneurship programmes.	Foss et al., 2019; Khan et al., 2021; Yadav & Unni, 2016
GP–2	During the COVID pandemic, women entrepreneurship grew due to massive job losses.	Bentancor, 2022; García & Capitán, 2016; Iwu & Nxopo, 2015; Ingalagi et al., 2021; Ojediran & Anderson, 2020; Setini et al., 2020; Stefan et al., 2021
GP–3	South African government’s initiatives to support women entrepreneurship.	Irene, 2017; Martínez-Rodríguez, 2022
GP–4	Factor hampering the success of government initiatives.	Jolović, 2019; Moreno, 2016; Ogundana et al., 2021; Seenivasan, 2014
WK–1	Factors restricting the advancement of women entrepreneurship in South Africa.	Ajani et al., 2021; Chamorro-Premuzic et al., 2014; Mandishaya, 2015; Shava & Chinyamurindi, 2022; Sharma & Grewal, 2018; Siddiqui & Jan, 2019; Trivedi et al., 2020; Yousafzai et al., 2021
WK–2	Institutional support for women entrepreneurs in South Africa	Nziku & Henry, 2020; Trivedi et al., 2020
WK–3	Government capacity-related issues.	Barrachina Fernández et al., 2021; Mandongwe & Jaravaza, 2020; Ojong et al., 2021
T2	The significance of higher education institutions to empowering female entrepreneurs.	Civera & Meoli, 2023; Jolović, 2019; Kumar, 2014; Moreno, 2016; Morris et al., 2013; Ogundana et al., 2021; O’Brien et al., 2019; Olumuyiwa et al., 2023; Wadee & Padayachee, 2017
T3	University-based women entrepreneurship framework.	Botha & Neil, 2017; Cock, 2018; Civera & Meoli, 2023; Dzomonda & Fatoki, 2019; Kumar, 2014; Morris et al., 2013; O’Brien et al., 2019; Olumuyiwa et al., 2023; Pimpa, 2021; Tang, 2022; Vladimirova & Le Blanc, 2016; Wadee & Padayachee, 2017

Source: Authors own creation.

6. The significance of higher education institutions in empowering female entrepreneurs

Higher education’s role in empowering South African women entrepreneurs is under-researched (Meyer & Klonaridis, 2020). Beyond South Africa, Said and Enslin (2020) assert that there are fewer studies on women entrepreneurship in Africa compared to western countries, in other words, most of these studies are skewed in favour of the developed nations (Civera & Meoli, 2023; Kumar, 2014; Morris et al., 2013; O’Brien et al., 2019; Wadee & Padayachee, 2017). The structural initiatives in South Africa that are put in place to reposition the majority of women entrepreneurs from the level of microenterprises to medium and large-scale enterprises are being spearheaded by the Department of Trade and Industry. Higher education institutions are yet to play an active role in this process (Moreno, 2016; Ogundana et al., 2021).

The basic reality in most South African universities is an overemphasis on the teaching and learning of theoretical concepts of entrepreneurship whereas empowering female student entrepreneurs transcends rhetoric (Jolović, 2019). Thus, a concrete interdisciplinary strategy that involves various stakeholders within and outside of the campus is required to collaborate to achieve success. The foregoing suggests that the support system that could aid female student entrepreneurs is limited in this regard. Similarly, Olumuyiwa et al. (2023) submit that support structures for student entrepreneurs, such as entrepreneurial networks and hands-on entrepreneurial experience are scarce in most South African universities.

The authors argued that, due to the patriarchal nature of South African society, a gender-focus initiative is crucial to position women entrepreneurs on pathways for success. In line with this reasoning, Tang (2022) opines that the Student Women Economic Empowerment Programme, a university-based gender focus initiative that focuses on empowering women entrepreneurs to establish personal enterprises while studying has yet to make a difference in the female entrepreneurial landscape as it is limited to the confines of a single university and its effectiveness is still being debated by academics.

Female entrepreneurship literature in the worldwide context demonstrates that entrepreneurship is a gendered phenomenon (Jennings & Brush, 2013), and a strong university support structure is required to set female undergraduate and postgraduate students on the route to success (Henry et al., 2016). University affiliation with women-led firms could be beneficial as this platform provides women-owned firms with diverse resources that are critical for entrepreneurial success. In addition, partnerships between female role models and women entrepreneurs in the academic context have the potential to enhance the confidence of prospective female-owned enterprises in terms of skills, innovation, and growth propensities (Civera & Meoli, 2023).

Similarly, Nanda and Sorensen (2010) state that synergistic interactions between universities, government agencies, and other relevant stakeholders can foster greater entrepreneurial activities among women. However, such affiliations are grossly uncommon in the South African higher education context (Chinomona & Maziriri, 2015). In view of the foregoing, this study revolves around developing theory rather than theory validation. The development of the ‘Pan-African paradigm’, a model specifically designed to meet the requirements of female entrepreneurs in South Africa, could result from a full understanding of how university efforts foster women’s entrepreneurship in a global context (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Implications of the study.

Source: Authors own creation.

7. Recommendation and way forward

The ‘proposed women entrepreneurship model’ serves as a central recommendation in this study as it answers the third research question.

7.1. The proposed women entrepreneurship model

In light of the findings of this SLR, this paper attempts to develop a university-based framework that could be flexible enough to act as ‘enabler’ to existing and prospective women entrepreneurs. The clear justification for this position is that higher education as a promoter of knowledge and novelty holds a vital responsibility in acting as an agent of change (Civera & Meoli, 2023). This viewpoint gains significance from the observation that nearly all sustainable development goals are connected to education, except SDG 14 which concerns ocean preservation (Vladimirova & Le Blanc, 2016).

The proposed framework is founded on a proposition that closing the gender gap in the domain of entrepreneurship benefits societies as a whole, not just women and girls (Aljuwaiber, 2021; Pimpa, 2021). In line with the reasoning of O’Brien et al. (2019), the contribution and collaboration of society’s three pillars; namely public policy, academia, and industry, are indispensable in guaranteeing the efficacy of the promotion of entrepreneurial skill development in the context of HEIs. The framework proposed emphasizes partnerships between universities, the public sector, the private sector, and beneficiaries. In other words, the resources, expertise, and networks of these stakeholders are required to establish a supportive platform that empowers women and enables them to achieve their entrepreneurial dreams.

A review of the works of scholars, such as Morris et al. (2013), Olumuyiwa et al. (2023), Wadee and Padayachee (2017) indicates that most of the university-based entrepreneurship programmes in South Africa emphasises entrepreneurship in theory to the detriment of entrepreneurial skill development, as a result, the proposed framework does not advocate the introduction of new entrepreneurship courses rather it reinforces the connection between prospective female student entrepreneurs through a tri-partite cooperation between the university, government agencies, and the public sector. The essence of this partnership is to facilitate beneficiaries’ access to business advisory services, role modelling, funders, and incubators thereby easing state regulatory frameworks.

Moreover, the authors contend that, through this initiative, Higher education institutions could foster the development of networks for female entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurial networks, according to Ozkazanc‐Pan and Clark Muntean (2018), are avenues where aspiring women entrepreneurs come together to exchange novel ideas, share effective methods, and discuss innovative concepts. Central to the framework is a pilot initiative of the University of Johannesburg tagged ‘Student Women Economic Empowerment Programme’ (Bvuma & Marnewick, 2020). This initiative currently renders a crucial support system to incumbent women entrepreneurs on campus however, its operations are limited to a few campuses (Tang, 2022). Thus, the integration of the proposed framework is expected to strengthen and expand the scope of ‘SWEEPS’ operation beyond the borders of the University of Johannesburg and the University of Kwazulul Natal (Olumuyiwa et al., 2023). In other words, interconnection among universities is crucial to ensure that no region is left behind.

To ensure the success of the initiative, experienced female entrepreneurs are anticipated to play a crucial role. These women could regularly groom and mentor the apprentices (female students), giving them insights into the realities of daily business operations in the real world in line with the reasoning of Dzomonda and Fatoki (2019), who assert that repetitive learning is a learning-by-doing paradigm that is necessary for skill development. By implementing this framework, the productive transfer of entrepreneurial skills from female role models to apprentices is guaranteed. In line with the work of Kumar (2014) who affirms that sociocultural background of a woman correlates with her intention to start up a business, the proposed framework has been tailored to be compatible with the South African sociocultural milieu, where women are typically considered to play a subservient role to males, as a result, only female students who exhibit an entrepreneurial drive will be identified as beneficiaries.

Furthermore, the proposed women entrepreneurship framework aims to address the shortfalls of the current South African government’s entrepreneurship promotion programme. This programme was established through ‘Sectoral Education and Training Authority’ (SETA) (Department of Labour) and provides women entrepreneurs with the foundational resources needed to launch a business (Cock, 2018). However, it is not connected to any educational institutions or mentors, leading to a significant portion of the beneficiaries closing down businesses due to management difficulties (Botha & Neil, 2017). Finally, the framework identifies the key beneficiaries of the collaborations as existing and potential women entrepreneurs operating within the university context. The key role players are interdependent and interconnected to operate as a cohesive unit as depicted in Figure 5.

Figure 5. The proposed women entrepreneurship framework.

Note: The independent variable is denoted by the colour green, the dependent variable is represented by white, and mediating variables are indicated by the colour grey.

Source: Designed by author.

Based on the preceding model outlined, the subsequent recommendations are proposed:

• It is essential for higher education to identify seasoned women entrepreneurs who can serve as role models for female students and alumni. In addition to guiding, nurturing, and enhancing the self-confidence of women, role models could also provide the guidance and direction necessary to close the gender gap in entrepreneurship. This would extend not only to the educational sphere but also to the wider business world.

• In a patriarchal society, such as South Africa, mental renovation of young women particularly in the tertiary education sector is crucial to tackle the agelong gender stereotypes.

• To ensure that the frameworks are tailored to specific challenges and opportunities faced by female students in various specific contexts, higher education institutions could customize the Female Entrepreneurship Inclusion Framework to meet the particular needs of students at some institutions.

• Above all, it is worthwhile to indicate that the framework is still in the process of being refined, hence, specific elements will be consistently incorporated and removed as required to enhance its overall efficiency.

8. Conclusion and future research direction

In this systematic literature review, we provide data from numerous studies pertaining to the field of female entrepreneurship within the South African context, with a focus on studies conducted and published during the period spanning from 2013 to 2023. The research provides a forum for identifying gaps in women entrepreneurship literature. The descriptive analysis presented in this study shows that entrepreneurship and innovation could develop into a source of opportunities aiding societies in constructing socioeconomic wellness for all. The gender gap appears to be a major challenge that may be addressed. According to the reviewed literature, the South African society is attempting to close the gender gap through a variety of initiatives that inspire female entrepreneurs and may eventually solidify norms that ensure gender equality in the pursuit of inclusive societies.

This study adds new evidence to the current literature in the following ways: Firstly, this study demonstrates that South African government, at various levels, has vibrant programmes and initiatives geared toward the development of women entrepreneurship; however, the effectiveness of these programmes is perpetually being undermined by factors, such as skill-gap, scarcity of women entrepreneurial networks, inadequate implementation of on the part of government representatives, bureaucratic bottlenecks and scarcity of women entrepreneurial role models. Secondly, a gender-focused entrepreneurship framework is conceptualised and recommended in this regard; education leaders and policymakers may find these recommendations helpful in arriving at well-informed decisions that will enable women entrepreneurs to thrive in South Africa. The central conclusion of this paper is that the public sector dominates the forefront of women’s empowerment efforts and that institutions of higher education play a peripheral role in promoting women’s entrepreneurship. Nonetheless, a collaborative intervention of higher education institutions as the custodians of knowledge and innovation has the capacity to mitigate the weaknesses of the current model.

This study has its limitations, the systematic literature review attempted to investigate the stakeholders’ contributions to women entrepreneurship in South Africa. Due to the absence of primary data, the accuracy of our findings may be limited; thus, cross-national empirical research on women entrepreneurs in South Africa could be conducted. The outcomes of such empirical studies may provide additional insights into the topical issue.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Ademola Olumuyiwa Omotosho

Dr. Ademola Olumuyiwa Omotosho currently holds the position of research fellow at the Central University of Technology in South Africa. He is a dedicated scholar with considerable experience in both teaching and research. His primary research focuses encompass entrepreneurship education, women’s entrepreneurship, innovation and sustainability, youth development projects associated with Enactus, and business management.

Kimanzi Mathew

Dr. Kimanzi Mathew is currently the Head of the Department of Economics and Management Sciences Education at Central University of Technology in South Africa. A dedicated scholar, he brings considerable experience in teaching and research, with a primary focus on higher education, secondary education, education for sustainable development, innovation, and sustainability of small and medium-sized enterprises.

Alfred Modise

Dr. Motalenyane Alfred Modise serves as the Assistant Dean for Research, Innovation, and Engagement at the Central University of Technology (CUT) in the Free State Province of South Africa. Formerly the Departmental Manager at CUT and Acting Assistant Dean for Teaching and Learning, he has showcased his academic prowess through paper presentations at both national and international conferences.

Ayansola Ayandibu

Dr. Ayanshola Ayandibu is an experienced lecturer in the Department of Business Management at the University of Zululand in South Africa. His primary research focuses on strategic management, leadership, entrepreneurship, innovation, business management and sustainability of SMEs.