Social media use among basic school teachers in Ghana: exploring opportunities and challenges

Abstract

Social media has increasingly become a vital tool for communication and collaboration in the global education sector, including Ghana. However, there is limited empirical research on the use of social media by basic school teachers in Ghana. This study explored the use of social media by this group of teachers, focusing on the associated opportunities and challenges. Using a descriptive survey design; an online questionnaire was administered to 1,014 randomly selected basic school teachers. The study found that Facebook and WhatsApp were the most used platforms. Teachers used social media for various purposes, including communication with colleagues, parents, and students; professional development; and resource sharing. However, concerns about the effects and challenges of social media use, such as addiction, time consumption, high data expenditure, cyberbullying, and unreliable internet access, were also identified. The findings provide valuable insights into the current state of social media use by basic school teachers in Ghana and improve our understanding of the potential benefits and challenges associated with its use in education. This study suggests that the Ministry of Education should develop guidelines and policies to ensure teachers’ responsible and effective use of social media to improve teaching and learning in Ghana.

Keywords:

• Social media
• basic school
• teachers
• Facebook
• WhatsApp
• twitter
• YouTube
• Ghana

REVIEWING EDITOR:

• Li Zhao, School of Education Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China

SUBJECTS:

• Teachers & Teacher Education; Continuing Professional Development; Higher Education; Information Technology; Education - Social Sciences

Introduction

The broad aim of education is to empower individuals with knowledge, skills, and competencies for personal and societal development, making it a fundamental human right and a cornerstone of sustainable development. However, access to education remains a global challenge, with disparities in opportunities driven by geographical, economic, and sociocultural factors (World Bank, 2018). Digital literacy is pivotal in addressing these barriers, enabling remote learning, reducing costs through open educational resources, providing personalized learning experiences, and fostering global collaboration (UNESCO, 2019). Emphasizing digital literacy is crucial in advancing Sustainable Development Goal 4, which aims to ensure inclusive and equitable education for all, as it opens doors to a more accessible, flexible, and equitable educational landscape (UNESCO, 2016, 2019).

The use of social media has become increasingly popular in many areas of human life, including education. Social media use has been increasing globally because of the growing number of internet users engaging in two-way interaction (Abbas et al., 2021; Chawinga, 2017; Van Den Beemt et al., 2020). Its use has grown rapidly globally after the COVID-19 pandemic (Abbas et al., 2021; Yu et al., 2022) especially for education purposes in many countries. Higher education lecturers and teachers resorted to using social media and other online digital applications to facilitate teaching and learning (Maqsood et al., 2021). Social media has also gained space in educational settings due to ICT use in the teaching and learning process. Specifically, social media has offered teachers, learners, and parents a platform to interact remotely by creating content, sharing, and accessing resources, tools, and other services.

Social media consists of Web 2.0 technologies, which include internet-based applications that allow content creators to share information, ideas, personal messages, and other content, such as videos (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010). Social media applications are distributed through various digital and rechargeable devices, such as tablets, iPads, personal computers, laptops, and smartphones (Chugh & Ruhi, 2018; Ubaedillah et al., 2021). Examples of social media applications include Facebook, blogs, YouTube, Twitter, WhatsApp, and Instagram (Manu et al., 2021; Zhu et al., 2020). These applications have been used to supplement blended learning and to assist teachers and students in creating positive interactions to achieve certain pedagogical objectives (Chawinga, 2017). There has been an increase in research on the use of social media, especially for lecturers and students in higher institutions (Chawinga, 2017; Manu et al., 2021; Muyingo, 2017); however, social media use by in-service teachers in basic schools (kindergarten, primary, and junior high) has received very little attention in the literature.

A study in the UK that interviewed 12 teachers about their use of social media found that they were under pressure to connect to colleagues and parents to discuss learners’ academic issues (Fox & Bird, 2017). A similar quantitative study conducted in Pakistan on teachers’ attitudes toward social media use found that most teachers (66.6%) used Facebook, followed by YouTube (21.4%), to interact with colleagues, friends, and family (Jogezai et al., 2021). A two-year longitudinal study of 1,033 students in high schools in the United States found that Facebook necessitated more interaction between students and teachers and between classes, making students adjust more easily to the academic environment and increasing student retention (Nalbone et al., 2016). A multi-site study of ICT expert teachers from three countries (Australia, Belgium, and the United States) conducted interviews with teachers to determine their use of social media platforms for professional learning, which revealed that teachers use social media, such as WhatsApp, Facebook, and Twitter, for knowledge construction, information sharing, and networking with other colleagues to build a community of professionals (Prestridge, 2019). However, in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), there is a dearth of research when it comes to teachers’ use of social media to facilitate teaching and learning (Enyama et al., 2021).

One study in Malawi on undergraduate students’ use of Twitter and blogs found that these resources facilitated a learner-centered approach to teaching, since they encouraged students to share and discuss course materials among themselves and with their lecturers (Chawinga, 2017). While it is important to acknowledge teachers’ and lecturers’ use of social media for social and entertainment purposes, teachers also use social media to engage in academic and professional development programs (Apeanti & Danso, 2013; Van Den Beemt et al., 2020). Studies in South Africa (Bamigboye & Olusesan, 2017) and Nigeria (Fasae & Adegbilero-Iwari, 2016) identified lecturers and learners using social media to share academic information, interact with lecturers on some challenging topics, and engage in social activities and entertainment. Despite all these benefits of using social media, other studies have identified some associated challenges. For example, Dzvapatsav et al.’s (2014) study in South Africa found there is a high cost expenditure on data bundles, cyber bullying, and inadequate digital skills, all of which have challenged the adoption of social media in higher institutions. Other studies have cited privacy issues, reduction in productivity, and addiction, among other factors that challenge the use of social media (Chugh & Ruhi, 2018; Van Den Beemt et al., 2020).

In Ghana, few studies have been undertaken on the use of social media in higher education institutions. In contrast, studies on social media use by basic school teachers are almost non-existent. Furthermore, empirical research suggests that certain demographic factors, such as gender, age, and years of teaching experience, influence teachers’ social media use (Manca & Ranieri, 2016). However, no prior study in Ghana has researched teachers’ purposes for using social media, and whether certain background characteristics predict such use. Most studies on teachers’ use of social media have mostly been conducted in developed contexts with high internet usage. Thus, an empirical study on basic school teachers’ purpose for using social media will add to the existing gaps in the literature on limited-resource contexts. More specifically, the findings of the present study will contribute to a better understanding of the use of social media in education in Ghana and will provide insights into how teachers can use it effectively and responsibly to enhance their practices. The present study therefore addresses the following research questions:

1. What type of social media platforms do teachers in basic school use, and for what purposes?

2. What demographic characteristics, such as gender, age, and teaching experience, predict teachers’ use of social media?

3. What challenges do basic school teachers face in using social media?

Theoretical underpinnings

This study is premised on the uses and gratification theory (UGT), which examines how and why individuals use certain types of media to satisfy their needs. The UGT, which can be traced back to the work of Katz et al. (1974) explains the foundation of an individual’s motives or purpose for using mass media. The theory was originally used to provide answers to why people use mass media such as television and newspapers (Katz et al., 1974; Musa et al., 2016), However, technological advancement has seen the emergence of social networking sites that have changed the way people use mass media via the internet (Chugh & Ruhi, 2018; Van Den Beemt et al., 2020). The emergence of social networking sites has thus shifted the UGT to focus on these new media (Menon & Meghana, 2021). Social media has one distinguishable feature, which is interactivity and user control of the creation and sharing of content in responses to partner communicators (Prestridge, 2019; Ubaedillah et al., 2021). This has increased the use of social media platforms for the satisfaction of individualized needs (Bamigboye & Olusesan, 2017). Social media platforms, such as Facebook, WhatsApp, Twitter, Instagram, and blog sites, are used by individuals, professionals, and organizations for various purposes, such as education, entertainment, and satisfying social and psychological needs (Chugh & Ruhi, 2018). Applying the UGT to in-service teachers’ use of social media suggests that teachers’ views on the purpose of using social media have not been sufficiently explored, especially in resource-limited contexts like Ghana. The application of this theory will thus improve our understanding of teachers’ use of social media and the demographic characteristics that predict social media use.

Literature review

Social networking sites, such as social media, have transformed communication among individuals and professionals across the globe via the use of smart devices. Social media includes a range of online applications that enable group or individual interactions for social connections, collaborations, and the exchange of ideas in a web-based community (D’Souza et al., 2017). Kaplan & Haenlein (2010) defined social media as “a group of internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0 and that allow the creation and exchange of user-generated content.” (pg. 61). The ease with which content is created and instantly shared has made social media use in education more popular, especially in the tertiary education landscape (Whyte & Hennessy, 2017; Yu et al., 2022; Zhu et al., 2020). Teachers and students use social media to exchange content, share resources, and connect and collaborate with colleagues to improve teaching and learning (Chugh & Ruhi, 2018; Jogezai et al., 2021). A study in the United States on time spent on social media found that more than 35% of users spent more time on Facebook, followed by Twitter, for various reasons (Rauniar et al., 2014). A study of English language teachers’ use of social media in Indonesia for teaching distance learning revealed that 37% used WhatsApp, 15% used YouTube, 13% used Instagram, and 12% used Facebook (Ubaedillah et al., 2021). Fasae & Adegbilero-Iwari (2016) study of students’ use of social media in public universities in Nigeria revealed very high usage of Facebook (93.5%), followed by Google+ (63.8%) and Twitter (47.8%).

Studies on the use of social media in higher education have revealed the academic purpose of such use (Chawinga, 2017; Manu et al., 2021). For example, a meta-analysis of social media use in higher education revealed that due to its easy use, social media allows lecturers and students to collaborate among themselves in sharing information, thus serving as a resource through which collaborative learning environments can be built, and where students can connect with lecturers at any point in time (Chugh & Ruhi, 2018). A global cross-sectional survey of health professional educators from eight developed countries regarding their use of social media in teaching medical students revealed that students’ learning was enhanced through such approaches, and lecturers’ were expected to design teaching strategies with the use of social media (D’Souza et al., 2017). Furthermore, studies in the United States and UK have revealed that while teachers use social media to connect to professional learning communities with other colleagues, they are also used to communicate with parents on the performance of their children and other welfare-related issues (Fox & Bird, 2017; Prestridge, 2019). Other studies in India, Indonesia, and Turkey have also shown that apart from teachers’ use of social media for social interactions and entertainment purposes, social media is able to enhance lecturer-to-student relationships, which promotes student learning (Menon & Meghana, 2021; Muyingo, 2017; Ubaedillah et al., 2021). Furthermore, social media and other digital applications eased the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic with the closure of schools. Many Governments resorted to online teaching and learning activities whereby social media played a greater part by interacting with students, teachers and parents (Abbas et al., 2019; Maqsood et al., 2021). Similarly, studies conducted in Nigeria (Fasae & Adegbilero-Iwari, 2016), South Africa (Bamigboye & Olusesan, 2017), and Ghana (Apeanti & Danso, 2013; Barfi et al., 2021) have enumerated teachers’ use of social media for professional networking purposes, acquiring online resources for teaching, and connecting with friends and family as well.

The social media literature has also shown that certain demographic characteristics of teachers, such as age, sex, and teaching experience, may predict the use of social media in the teaching and learning process. For example, a study on lecturers’ use of social media in higher education in Italy found that females tended to use podcasts and YouTube more often, while there was no significant difference between males and females regarding the use of Facebook or LinkedIn. In addition, younger people (25–44 years of age) tended to use Twitter and Facebook, while no age differences were found for the use LinkedIn, podcasts, blogs, and YouTube. Additionally, those with more teaching experience tended to use Twitter more than other social media applications (Manca & Ranieri, 2016). Apart from this study in Italy, there is a gap in the literature on teachers’ demographic characteristics and the use of social media, especially in a developing context.

While recognizing the opportunities of using social media by teachers and students, other researchers have cited some challenges in the educational settings. Manca & Ranieri (2016) have cited information overload, distraction, and cyberbullying as potential drawbacks of students’ use of social media. Similarly, Whyte & Hennessy (2017) review of social media use in medical education found that respondents labeled Facebook as anti-social, since it prevents students from meeting face-to-face to interact socially. Some instructors in universities in India and the United States have cited Facebook, WhatsApp, and Twitter as distractors to learning, as they consume a lot of time when searching for information related to classes and exams (Baishya & Maheshwari, 2019; Casimir & Doris, 2011). Studies in Ghana on the use of social media have documented privacy issues and distraction from study, among other effects of using social media (Manu et al., 2021; Serwaa & Dadzie, 2015). Other studies (Afful & Akrong, 2020; Chugh & Ruhi, 2018) have cited limited digital skills, cost of internet bundles, limited time, and unreliable internet connectivity as the main challenges associated with the use of social media. There is a dearth of research on basic school teachers’ use of social media, and more specifically, whether specific demographic characteristics predict the use of social media is not known for this group of teachers.

Many studies on social media use in the education setting have been conducted with students at the tertiary level (Baishya & Maheshwari, 2019; Barfi et al., 2021), including studies in Ghana (Afful & Akrong, 2020; Apeanti & Danso, 2013). Hence, there is a gap in the literature regarding basic school teachers’ use of social media in the current context where media technologies are being promoted in Ghana.

ICT in education policy in Ghana

Ghana has recognized the potential role ICTs could play in the growth of its economy and eradicate poverty, especially in rural communities. The national ICT ideology aimed to facilitate the transformation of Ghana into an information society is built upon a knowledge-based economy (Ministry of Education (MOE), 2008). In recognition of the importance of ICT use in all sectors of the economy, the government of Ghana formulated a National ICT Policy known as ICT for Accelerated Development (ICT4AD) in 2003 (Ministry of Education (MOE), 2008). This policy provided the bedrock for Ghana’s vision for the information age in all sectors of the economy that have drawn their ICT policies (Kubuga et al., 2021). Education constituted one of the essential pillars for realizing the national ICT agenda.

Consequently, a national agenda of ICT in education was formulated (Ministry of Education (MOE), 2008). This ICT in education policy aimed to enable graduates from educational institutions to confidently and creatively use ICT tools and resources to develop the requisite skills and knowledge needed to be active participants in the global knowledge economy. The Education Reforms rolled out in in 2007 introduced ICT as a subject and taught across other subject areas in schools.

Furthermore, the recent education reforms in 2019 also saw the introduction of computing in basic schools and ICT as elective and core subjects at senior high schools. From 2008 until now, the ICT in education policy has undergone various reviews and implementation phases. However, the core ICT ideology has stayed unaltered, in its revised form the policy is meant to accomplish the following expectations: ICT as a learning and operating tool, ICT as integrated into the teaching and learning, and ICT as a career option for students (Ministry of Education (MOE), 2008). Furthermore, the Education Strategic Plan 2018-2030 (ESP) placed emphasis on providing relevant opportunities for all learners to develop ICT skills with provision of well-equipped ICT facilities to improve quality of teaching and learning in achieving SDG 4 (Ministry of Education (MOE), 2018).

It is worth noting that social media use in the teaching and learning process in Ghanaian basic schools has not been mentioned explicitly in the ICT policy. However, since social media is one of the emerging information communication technologies, and if it use could improve teaching and learning in our schools. ICT in education policy review would have to consider its use and regulations in basic schools in Ghana.

Pre-tertiary teacher training in Ghana

Currently, there are 48 residential teacher training institutions affiliated with five mentoring public universities (46 public and two private), which are referred to as colleges of education (CoE) in Ghana. These CoEs are responsible for training teachers for basic schools, even though some universities also train teachers. These colleges were upgraded to tertiary institutions and began offering a three-year, six-semester Diploma in Basic Education (DBE) in the 2004/2005 academic year. This program was introduced in response to a teacher education policy that requires all basic school teachers to possess the minimum professional qualification of a DBE (GES, 2004). All the colleges train teachers for kindergarten, primary, and junior high schools. Some colleges specialize in subjects such as early childhood education, science, mathematics, and technical skills. The DBE curriculum has been criticized for not adequately preparing teachers to teach in Ghanaian basic schools (T-TEL, 2015), with little positive impact on learning outcomes being reported. Such criticism was the foundation for the latest teacher education reform, starting in 2015, which is the Transforming Teacher Education and Learning (T-TEL) project. T-TEL introduced a four-year Bachelor of Education curriculum in the CoE. The BEd program is being run per the National Teacher Education Curriculum Framework (NTECF) and the National Teaching Standards (NTS). The teachers involved in this current study are DBE holders who are obliged to upgrade themselves to the degree level, which is now a basic requirement to teach in basic schools in Ghana. The programs are being overseen by one of the mentoring universities, which uses both online and face-to-face sessions as modes of delivery. The teachers come from all 16 regions in Ghana. There are 18 designated study centers where the teachers meet during basic school vacation periods to have face-to-face lectures to complement the online teaching and write their end-of-semester examinations.

Participants and procedure

The research employed a descriptive online cross-sectional survey approach to assess teachers’ utilization of social media. Online surveys conducted through a shared link offer a cost-effective, time-efficient, and easily accessible method for data collection. This approach simplifies the process for participants, allowing them to respond at their convenience. This approach is especially well-suited for a diverse range of participants across different geographical locations, effectively reducing the logistical difficulties associated with physically distributing surveys. (Jogezai et al., 2021). Participants for the study were drawn from in-service teachers from the 16 regions in Ghana who are on a distance learning program at the University of Cape Coast. A two-stage sampling procedure was employed. In the first stage, all 18 study centers were divided into three groups (northern [3], middle [7], and southern belts [8]). Second, a table of random numbers was used to randomly select nine centers, including three from the middle, three from the southern, and three from the northern belts, which were included in the sample. Teachers in their final year of the program were invited to participate in the study using a survey link. This link was connected to the questionnaire shared with the teachers on the various study centers’ WhatsApp platforms.

A total of 1,014 teachers participated in the study, which comprised 481 (47.4%) females and 533 (52.6%) males (see Figure 1). The teachers’ experience ranged from less than one year to more than 20 years (see Figure 2). About 55% of the teachers taught between the ages of three and 10 years. A total of 7.3% had taught for less than one year, and a few (0.6%) had taught for more than 20 years. Most of the respondents taught in the middle (37.6%) and southern (36.4%) belts of Ghana (see Table 1), while the remaining taught in the northern belt (26%). Most of the respondents (77.8%) were on the Junior High School (JHS) program, while a significant minority enrolled on primary education (7.2%) and early childhood education (15%). However, the majority were teaching primary (54%) and JHS (34%) levels in their schools.

Figure 1. Gender of participants.

Figure 2. Teachers’ years of teaching experience.

Table 1. Demographic characteristics of participants.

		N (1,014)	%
Region
	Northern	264	26
	Middle	381	37.6
	Southern	369	36.4
Class teachers teach
	ECE	121	11.9
	Primary	548	54
	JHS	345	34
Program of study
	ECE	152	15
	Primary	73	7.2
	JHS	789	77.8
Age	Mean	Minimum	Maximum
	29.77	20	56

Measure and analysis

The survey instrument had 11 items on the background characteristics of the teachers. These included items on their age, gender, teaching experience, program of study, and how often they used social media platforms. There were 28 items asking respondents to rate their purpose for using social media. Nineteen of the 28 items were adapted from the work of Fasae and Adegbilero-Iwari (2016), while nine items were adopted from Owen, Fox, and Bird’s (2016) study on the use of social media in universities. Items on the purpose of using social media were measured with a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = “never use” to 4 = “very often.” Some of the items included “to ask my lecturer questions about course content”, “for sharing academic events with peers”, and “to stay in touch with friends or family I rarely see in person.” For teachers’ purposes of using social media, an exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis were conducted using SPSS version 22 and AMOS 21, following a simple random sampling procedure of splitting the data set into two subsamples (a subsample of n = 505 for EFA and a subsample n = 509 for cross validation for CFA).

An open-ended item asked teachers to write at least two challenges associated with using social media. Descriptive statistics, such as percentages, means, standard deviations, and bar graphs, were used to present teachers’ reasons for use and reported challenges. A multiple regression analysis was used to examine the teachers’ background characteristics that could predict their use of social media. The open-ended responses were entered into MS Excel and analyzed by creating codes, themes, and sub-themes. These sub-themes were quantified by the number of responses by computing the percentage for each sub-theme. The sub-theme percentages were then presented in bar graphs.

Results

Descriptives

Teachers’ frequency of social media use

The teachers were asked to rate the frequency of use of some popular social media applications. The results are presented by gender in Table 2, which indicates that males (96%) and females (95.2%) often and very often used WhatsApp. This was followed by Facebook, with most of the teachers (male = 75.1%, female = 70.1%) using the application often to very often. The table indicates that the teachers rarely used certain social media applications, such as blogs and podcasts. However, YouTube and Twitter each had a reasonable number of teachers who used them often and very often.

Table 2. Teachers’ frequency of use of social media applications.

	Male				Female
	Never use	Rarely often	Often	Very often	Never use	Rarely often	Often	Very often
WhatsApp	3(0.6)	15(2.8)	109(20.5)	406(76.2)	4(0.8)	19(4.0)	136(28.3)	322(66.9)
Facebook	17(3.2)	114(21.4)	211(39.6)	191(35.8)	27(5.6)	117(24.3)	189(39.3)	148(30.8)
Twitter	263(49.3)	157(29.5)	71(13.3)	42(7.9)	336(69.9)	74(15.4)	55(11.4)	16(3.3)
YouTube	84(15.8)	178(33.4)	173(32.5)	98(18.4)	82(17.0)	169(35.1)	174(36.2)	56(11.6)
Instagram	222(41.7)	168(31.5)	105(19.7)	38(7.1)	226(41.7)	168(31.5)	105(19.7)	38(7.1)
Podcast	421(79.0)	64(12.0)	38(7.1)	10(1.90	417(86.7)	42(8.7)	18(3.7)	4(0.8)
Blogs	399(74.9)	72(13.5)	45(8.4)	17(3.2)	403(83.8)	58(12.1)	18(3.7)	2(0.4)

Teachers’ purposes for using social media

Exploratory factor analysis

An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted with all 28 items measuring the purpose of using social media using a randomly selected subsample (n = 509). The EFA showed a four-factor structure with an eigenvalue over Kaiser’s criterion of 1.00 (see Table 3). The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) value was 0.89, with the measure verifying the sampling adequacy for the analysis. Bartlett’s test of sphericity indicated significant correlations between items that were sufficiently large (Hair et al., 2019) for the EFA analysis (ꭕ² = 4844.23, df = 231, p < 0.001). A principal component analysis using the varimax orthogonal rotation showed eight items with factor loadings less than the recommended value of 0.06 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007), which were therefore removed from the four-factor structure, with 20 items remaining. The remaining items has factor loadings ranging from 0.60 to 0.80 indicating a good measure of their respective factors (Hair et al., 2019). These 20 items accounted for 56.9% of the total variance. Cronbach’s alpha for all the factors was adequate, as all were above the recommended value of 0.70 (see Table 3).

Table 3. Exploratory factor analysis for teachers’ purposes of using social media (n = 509).

		Factor 1	Factor 2	Factor 3	Factor 4
Q7	For sharing academic events with my peers	0.59
Q14	To get explanations or clarification on challenging topics from other colleagues	0.631
Q15	To network with other colleagues	0.455
Q16	To clarify issues relating to lesson planning with colleagues	0.643
Q17	To find resources for planning my lessons	0.715
Q18	To learn new teaching skills from other teachers	0.727
Q20	To inform parents of issues affecting their children’s academic performance		0.788
Q21	To discuss pupils’ homework with parents		0.862
Q22	To discuss pupils’ behavior in class with parents		0.85
Q2	To ask my lecturer for feedback about my own performance			0.72
Q3	To get to know my lecturer better			0.718
Q4	To tell my lecturer something about myself			0.763
Q5	To discuss personal issues with my lecturer			0.678
Q12	To maintain existing friendships and family relationships				0.75
Q11	To stay in touch with friends or family I rarely see in person				0.733
Q10	To occupy my free time when I am bored				0.695
	Cronbach’ s α	0.83	0.86	0.82	0.73

Factor 1 – Academic/professional communication.

Factor 2 – Teacher/parent communication.

Factor 3 – Lecturer/student use.

Factor 4 – Social/entertainment use.

Confirmatory factor analysis

The 20 items used in the EFA measuring the purpose of using social media were subjected to a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to test the fit of the four-factor model using the cross-validation subsample (n = 505) using AMOS version 21 software. The fit indices showed that the final model with 16 items was acceptable (Chi-square/df = 916.65/164, CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.97, GFI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.031). The factors were labelled accordingly as Factor 1, “Academic/professional communication”, Factor 2 “, Teacher/parent communication”, Factor 3 “, Lecturer/student communication”, and Factor 4 “, Social/entertainment use.

Descriptives of teachers’ purposes for using social media

The descriptives of the teachers’ purposes for using social media are presented in Table 4. The results show that teachers reported high means for “academic/professional communication” and “social/entertainment use”, indicating that the teachers had high use for these purposes compared with “teacher/parent communication” and “lecturer/student communication.” Furthermore, the male teachers had a higher mean (M = 3.22, SD = 0.48) than the females (M = 3.12, SD = 0.49) on the “social/entertainment” use of social media. For example, the mean score for the item “to stay in touch with friends or family I rarely see in person” had a high mean score for males (M = 3.38, SD = 0.57) compared with females (M = 3.22, SD = 0.62).

Table 4. Teachers’ purposes for using social media.

	Male (533)		Female (481)
	Mean	SD	Mean	SD
Academic and professional communication	3.22	0.44	3.22	0.62
To share academic events with my peers	3.29	0.62	3.28	0.63
To get explanations or clarification on challenging topics from other colleagues	3.21	0.67	3.23	0.62
To network with other colleagues	3.11	0.61	3.05	0.61
To clarify issues relating to lesson planning with colleagues	3.17	0.55	3.23	0.53
To find resources for planning my lessons	3.31	0.61	3.3	0.56
To learn new teaching skills from other teachers	3.29	0.58	3.28	0.58
Teacher and parent communication	2.82	0.69	2.95	0.59
To inform parents of issues affecting their children’s academic performance	2.91	0.74	2.95	0.65
To discuss pupils’ homework with parents	2.8	0.75	2.87	0.69
To discuss pupils’ behavior in class with parents	2.78	0.76	2.83	0.69
Lecturer and student communication	2.85	0.65	2.40	0.71
To ask my lecturer for feedback about my own performance	2.75	0.76	2.7	0.78
To get to know my lecturer better	2.64	0.82	2.54	0.77
To tell my lecturer something about myself	2.45	0.81	2.29	0.74
To discuss personal issues with my lecturer	2.33	0.84	2.09	0.75
Social and entertainment use	3.22	0.48	3.12	0.73
To maintain existing friendships and family relationships	3.28	0.57	3.2	0.61
To stay in touch with friends or family I rarely see in person	3.38	0.57	3.22	0.62
To occupy my free time when I am bored	3.03	0.65	3	0.59

These high mean scores are reflected in the overall mean scores for “academic/professional communication” and “social/entertainment use” of social media. The lowest mean score for both male and female teachers was obtained for the item “to discuss personal issues with my lecturer”, with males having a slightly higher mean (M = 2.33, SD = 0.84) than females (M = 2.09, SD = 0.75). The item “to find resources for planning my lessons” had the highest mean score for males (M = 3.31, SD = 0.61) and females (M = 3.32, SD = 0.56).

Multiple regression analysis

The multiple regression results are presented in Table 5. The variables in the model were used based studies in the literature (Grande-De-Prado et al., 2020; Manca & Ranieri, 2016;) that found that certain background characteristics such as age, gender and teaching experience do predict the use of social media among teachers. The results indicated no significant relationship between the predictor variables and the academic/professional use of social media. However, there was a positive and marginally significant ($\beta$= –.06, SE = .16, p < .10) relationship between high teaching experience and social media use for teacher/parent communication use of social media. This result implies that teachers with more experience may be more inclined to use social media to communicate with parents about their children’s academic performance and behavior in class. Age was a strongly positive and significant predictor ($\beta$= –.08, SE = .004, p < .05) of teacher/parent communication on social media. This indicates that older teachers may be more inclined to use social media to communicate with parents about their children’s welfare compared with younger teachers. This corroborates previous findings, in which more experienced teachers were more likely to use social media to communicate with the parents of the pupils. In terms of lecturer/student communication, male teachers were more likely to use social media for these purposes ($\beta$= –.12, SE = .04, p < .10). Male teachers used social media more often to communicate with their lecturers in their distance education program. Interestingly, teachers enrolled on the junior high education programs negatively predicted lecturer/student communication via social media.

Table 5. Regression results of predictors of teachers’ social media use.

	Academic/professional communication	Teacher/parent communication	Lecturer/student communication	Social/entertainment use
Gender (female)	0.01 (0.029)	0.04 (0.056)	−0.12*** (0.041)	−0.07* (0.03)
Medium teaching experience	0.04 (0.35)	−0.04 (0.05)	−0.003 (0.049)	0.05† (0.03)
High teaching experience	0.05 (0.10)	0.06† (0.16)	0.003 (0.15)	0.04 (0.12)
Primary education	−0.01 (0.06)	−0.01 (0.09)	−0.003 (0.08)	−0.04 (0.128)
Junior high education	0.04 (0.04)	−0.03 (0.06)	−0.07† (0.05)	0.07* (0.05)
Age (in years)	−0.05 (0.03)	0.08* (0.004)	0.03 (0.04)	−0.11** (0.00)
R^2	0.006	0.017	0.018	0.009
Adj. R^2	0.004	0.001	−0.013	0.006
Num. obs.	1014	1014	1014	1014

Notes: Standardized coefficients reported. Standard errors are in parentheses. Male was used as a reference for gender. Low teaching experience was used as the reference category for the teaching experience variable. Offering early childhood education was used as the reference category for the program of study.

***p < .001.

**p < .01.

*p < .05.

†p < .10.

In the model, social/entertainment use was negatively predicted by teachers’ gender $(\beta$= –.07, SE = .03, p < .05) and positively and marginally predicted by medium teaching experience $\beta$= –.06, SE = .03, p < .10). In addition, teachers in the junior high education program had a positive significant relationship with social/entertainment use. However, social/entertainment use was negatively predicted by teachers’ age ($\beta$= –.11, SE = .00, p < .01). This indicates that younger teachers use social media more for social or entertainment purposes.

Challenges to using social media

The teachers were asked to indicate at least two things that impeded or served as challenges to using social media. The responses are summarized in Figure 3. Most of the teachers (25.5%) cited the “high cost of data bundles” as the main barrier to using social media. This was followed by “limited time” (22.7%) for using social media. A reasonable number of the teachers also cited “poor internet access” (18.3%) as one of the challenges of using social media. Others cited “limited digital skills”, “internet fraud”, and “intermittent electricity supply” as challenges impeding the use of social media.

Figure 3. Challenges of using social media (N = 904).

Discussion

The present study aimed to explore basic school teachers’ use of and the challenges encountered when using social media. The study found that most teachers used Facebook and WhatsApp more often than other platforms, such as Twitter, podcasts, and YouTube. While most male teachers used WhatsApp more often, women used Facebook to connect with colleagues and friends. The findings corroborate those of other studies (Rauniar et al., 2014; Ubaedillah et al., 2021; Yu et al., 2022) that have cited the frequent use of Facebook and WhatsApp in educational institutions for teaching and learning purposes. The study also found that the teachers rarely or never used podcasts and blogs; hence, it suggests that WhatsApp and Facebook are the most popular social media applications among teachers for various purposes. The study also found that teachers use social media for four main purposes: academic/professional communication, teacher/parent communication, lecturer/student communication, and social/entertainment use.

Studies conducted in the United States, UK, and Europe (Fox & Bird, 2017; Manca & Ranieri, 2016; Prestridge, 2019) have revealed that lecturers in tertiary institutions use social media to connect with their students for teaching and learning purposes and also to connect with other colleagues for professional development purposes. Fox & Bird (2017) study in the UK indicated that teachers found social media to be useful for connecting with other teachers for professional development purposes. Teachers also use social media platforms to access other teaching and learning resources to help them deliver effective lessons. The high means reported by the teachers on “academic/professional communication” suggest that, while the teachers use social media to connect with other colleagues for professional purposes, they also connect to share or access information concerning their course of study, since their program is offered via a blended mode of instruction. One of the fastest means of reaching out to learners’ guardians or parents has been parent–teacher social media platforms; hence, the teachers also reported using social media to connect to parents regarding the social and academic behaviors of learners (Owusu-Boakye et al., 2022). Learners and teachers communication has increased on social media since COVID-19 pandemic in 2019 and this has continue to grow because of its flexible usability (Prestridge, 2019; Zhu et al., 2020).

The study further found a significant positive relationship between highly experienced teachers and teacher/parent communication use of social media. This implies that teachers with more experience are more likely to use social media to communicate with parents about their children’s welfare. Teachers’ age was also a positive predictor of teacher/parent communication on social media use. This finding is not surprising, as experienced teachers who have more years may have developed a passion for establishing relationships with many parents to talk about their children’s behavior in class; hence, social media will offer them an easy platform to share and communicate with parents regarding their children. Nevertheless, social/entertainment use was negatively predicted by teacher age, implying that younger teachers are more likely to use social media for social/entertainment purposes. The study further found that gender also predicted teachers’ social/entertainment use of social media. In particular, female teachers used social media for social/entertainment purposes more often than male teachers. These findings support the study conducted in Italy (Manca & Ranieri, 2016), where background characteristics, such as the age and teaching experience of lecturers, predicted the use of social media.

This study further found that most teachers indicated high expenditures on data bundles as the main challenge of using social media. This was followed by the amount of time spent using social media. Others identified reduction in work productivity, and information overload as challenges of using social media. These findings resonate with studies conducted in Italy, India, and South Africa (Baishya & Maheshwari, 2019; Manca & Ranieri, 2016; Nel & Marais, 2020), where social media platforms such as WhatsApp and Twitter were cited as distractors to learning, since students spend a lot of time on these platforms. Some researchers have cited social media as providing unreliable sources of information in academia (Menon & Meghana, 2021; Prestridge, 2019), while others cited a reduction in work productivity as a major challenge of using social media. Social media has provided avenues for information overflow and distraction for both lecturers and students (Manca & Ranieri, 2016). Whyte & Hennessy (2017) study found that social media had reduced lecturers’ and students’ face-to-face meetings, which was branded as anti-social behavior. Furthermore, this study found inadequate digital skills on the side of the teachers as one of the challenges of using social media, which corroborates studies in Ghana that have cited limited digital skills as one of the challenges teachers face when using online applications (Kwaah et al., 2022; Manu et al., 2021). Also, challenges such as high-cost data bundles, limited time, and intermittent electricity supply found in this study support other studies in SSA (Bamigboye & Olusesan, 2017; Enyama et al., 2021; Yalley, 2022) that have cited similar challenges users of social media in this region face.

Limitations of the study

This study was limited to basic school teachers who were enrolled on a “sandwich” upgrading program, which may not be representative of all basic school teachers in Ghana. Additionally, the study relied on self-reported data, which may be subject to response bias or social desirability bias. Finally, the study did not explore the perspectives of students and parents regarding social media use by teachers, which could have provided additional insights into the benefits and challenges associated with teachers’ social media use. Despite these limitations, the study provides insights into teachers’ use of social media, which could be valuable for policy and practice in developing countries.

Conclusion

This study sought to explore teachers’ use of social media in basic schools in Ghana. The findings indicate that Facebook and WhatsApp were the most used social media platforms. Teachers use the platform for communication with colleagues, parents, students, professional development, and resource sharing. The teachers shared challenges associated with the use of these online platforms. These findings suggest that the rapid proliferation of online technologies, particularly the pervasive presence of social media, has permanently transformed the landscape of human existence. Within the realm of education, these digital advancements have ushered in a new era marked by distance learning, professional development, and an abundance of online resources that have substantially augmented teachers’ engagement with social media platforms. Our research has revealed the prominence of Facebook, WhatsApp, and YouTube as the leading choices among educators for various purposes, including academic and professional communication, teacher-student interactions, lecturer-student engagement, and even for moments of social and entertainment. This developing educational landscape underscores the imperative for educators to not only embrace but also employ the potential of social media in ways that enhance their students’ learning experiences. In developed nations like the United Kingdom and the United States, there exists a regulatory framework aimed at improving instructional time by teachers. In stark contrast, developing nations like Ghana have embedded digital literacy as a fundamental competency within their curriculum, presenting a commendable opportunity for teachers to leverage social media for professional development and access educational resources. Through this endeavor, teachers stand to bolster their digital proficiency and effortlessly integrate digital technologies into their teaching methodologies, ultimately bolstering the learning outcomes of their students.

Acknowledging the myriad challenges that accompany the use of social media by teachers as found in this study, it is paramount to recognize that teachers continue to rely on these platforms as indispensable tools for connecting with peers, students, and parents alike. This enduring reliance on social media underscores its pivotal role in the pursuit of educational excellence, a goal that occupies a central position in education policies across numerous sub-Saharan African countries, firmly intertwined with the pursuit of Sustainable Development Goal 4. As we navigate this ever-evolving digital landscape, it is imperative that educators remain adaptable, proactive, and innovative in their utilization of social media, leveraging it as a dynamic instrument to improve the quality of education and shape a brighter future for learners across the globe.

Policy implication

The ICT policy in education espouses the use of digital technologies to improve teaching and learning. However, the emergence of social media has come to stay with teachers, learners and parents. The implication for education practice is to review the ICT policy to include regulations and the use of social media in schools. A good policy that directs the use of social media would improve the community of practice among teachers, as this study points out that its use could improve teaching and learning in schools. The revised policy should also include specific regulations and guidelines for using social media in schools.

Policy recommendation

Based on the study’s findings, it is recommended that the Ministry of Education should develop clear policies and guidelines to regulate social media use in education, along with regular training and support for teachers on effective social media use. The responsible use of social media should be promoted, collaboration and resource sharing should be encouraged among teachers, students, and parents. The government and education authorities should invest in digital infrastructure to ensure access to reliable and affordable internet services. Furthermore, teachers should have regular training and support programmes to ensure effective and responsible use of social media. The training should focus on digital literacy, safe online practices and strategies to incorporate social media effectively into curriculum implementation. By implementing these recommendations, Ghana’s education system can effectively harness the potential benefits of social media while mitigating the associated challenges.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Christopher Yaw Kwaah

Christopher Yaw Kwaah is a Senior Research Fellow at the Institute of Education, University of Cape Coast in Ghana. He holds a PhD in Curriculum and Teaching from the University of Cape Coast, having also conducted part of his doctoral work at the Department of Teacher Education, Faculty of Behavioural Sciences, University of Helsinki, Finland. He is also the Research Coordinator at the Institute of Education, University of Cape Coast where he leads several local and international research projects. His research interests are teacher education, teacher professional development, and ICT in education. He has over 12 years of experience conducting research and overseeing the monitoring and evaluation of projects in various areas of the Ghanaian education systems, ranging from teacher education to policy implementation.