Evaluating academic performance and scholarly impact of rectors of indonesia’s public universities: a dual bibliometric and scholastic analysis

Abstract

This research conducted a combined bibliometric and scholastic analysis for characterizing and assessing rectors’ academic performance and scholarly impact at public universities in Indonesia. This bibliometric study evaluated the academic performance of 82 rectors of public universities in Indonesia from 93 initial candidates, focusing on 2706 data obtained through triangulation of open and verified data sources. The analysis showed male dominance, disparities in scientific productivity, and a tendency toward academic inbreeding. In citation analysis, the supremacy of natural science fields, especially Fisheries, Biology, Physics, and Engineering, becomes clear, showing a wider global impact than Accounting, Sociology, and Medicine. The richness and diversity of scientific areas are reflected in a higher range of citations, highlighting multidisciplinary integration and adaptation in responding to global challenges. These results trigger the need for intervention strategies to increase leadership diversity, scientific productivity, and gender equality in Indonesian public universities.

Keywords:

• Academic performance
• rector
• bibliometrics
• gender
• academic inbreeding
• citation
• natural science
• state universities
• Indonesia

REVIEWING EDITOR:

• Darwin Stephen, Universidad Alberto Hurtado, Chile

SUBJECTS:

• Economics, Finance, Business & Industry
• Business, Management and Accounting
• Management Education
• Higher Education
• Higher Education Management
• Sustainability Education, Training & Leadership
• Education Policy & Politics

1. Introduction

On a global scale, rectors of universities hold positions of utmost significance in the realm of leadership in higher education. They serve as proponents of academic excellence, serving as sources of inspiration and exemplification for the pursuit of knowledge and the highest standards of scholarly work (Balwant, 2016; Juntrasook, 2014). In addition to their administrative duties, rectors actively participate in research, scholarly publications, and community outreach (Dinh et al., 2021). Their academic reputation profoundly impacts the institutions they oversee, resonating both nationally and globally, fostering a culture of academic eminence (Dinh et al., 2021). They play a crucial role in directing universities towards the esteemed status of world-class institutions (Banker & Bhal, 2020).

Amid this global recognition of the crucial role that rectors play in higher education, Indonesia presents a distinctive array of challenges. The academic performance and ethical integrity of university rectors are of utmost importance for both the institutions they oversee and the nation’s aspirations for international acclaim in higher education. However, instances questioning the academic qualifications and ethical behavior of rectors have emerged, undermining trust and tarnishing the reputation of Indonesian universities (Putra et al., 2023).

Indonesia has long been involved in a determined endeavor to enhance the status of its universities to a world-class level, as evidenced by governmental initiatives aimed at enhancing global rankings (Rosser, 2019, 2023). Nonetheless, this pursuit of international recognition encounters challenges within the Indonesian higher education system, including matters of academic primordialism, uneven accessibility to high-quality education, academic bureaucracy, and an emphasis on short-term research and publication practices that have generated concerns regarding the caliber of academic output (Macháček & Srholec, 2022; Sandy & Shen, 2019).

In the intricate and multifaceted landscape at hand, rectors of public universities in Indonesia find themselves engaged in a nuanced and delicate balancing act. They are tasked with deftly navigating the multifarious responsibilities that come with academic leadership, bureaucratic management, and political expectations. Moreover, the extensive involvement of the state in the process of selecting rectors and the imposition of performance targets introduce additional layers of complexity to their already intricate roles (Guba, 2021; Guba & Gerashchenko, 2022). This interplay of academia, bureaucracy, and politics significantly shapes the unique and distinctive role of a rector in Indonesia.

The academic reputation of Indonesian rectors and their potential to serve as academic role models is incredibly important. Understandably, the demands of administrative and policy roles may sometimes distract them from their scholarly activities (Sutrisno & Pillay, 2013). As a result, it becomes absolutely necessary to perform a thorough evaluation of their academic performance to guarantee the preservation of academic integrity and productivity during their time in office.

To bridge this research gap, our study utilizes bibliometric analysis techniques to comprehensively evaluate the scholarly performance of public university rectors in Indonesia. We investigate their scholarly influence, publication histories, and citation metrics with the aim of providing a transparent and unbiased evaluation. Furthermore, we conduct a comprehensive analysis of their scholastic history, encompassing the educational establishments they have enrolled in, with the objective of acquiring understanding into their scholastic tendencies. This dual approach holds the potential to enhance our comprehension of the scholarly accomplishments of rectors, illuminating the complex relationship between leadership and academic merit within the realm of Indonesian higher education.

2. Research question

How can the academic performance and scholarly impact of rectors at public universities in Indonesia be characterized and assessed by Bibliometric and Scholastic Analysis?

3. Research objectives

To conduct a combined bibliometric and scholastic analysis for characterizing and assessing the academic performance and scholarly impact of rectors at public universities in Indonesia.

4. Literature review

4.1. Academic performance as an exemplary leadership of a rector or president of a university

In the realm of academia, the presence of exceptional leadership is of utmost importance when it comes to molding the standing and achievements of an educational institution. Be it a university rector, dean, or department head, a leader’s responsibilities extend far beyond mere administrative duties. Apart from managing administrative tasks, they are also tasked with fostering an environment that thrives on excellence, endorsing continuous learning, and inspiring the quest for knowledge. (Bryman, 1992; Madlock, 2008). The leadership exemplarity of a university rector or president is particularly impactful. Dumulescu & Muţiu (2021) Bayu presents an examination of the leadership approach implemented by a university amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. The discoveries indicated that the leadership of the rectorate was concentrated on offering explicit directives, which held a great deal of importance for participants’ autonomy in addressing the particular requirements of faculties. The bestowal of decision-making autonomy to faculties was perceived as a favorable aspect, facilitating the adjustment to each faculty’s distinctive needs and circumstances. In a specified comprehensive framework, this dispersion of decision-making authority is indispensable for effective leadership during a crisis (Berjaoui & Karami-Akkary, 2020; Kezar & Holcombe, 2017). The significance of collaboration in accomplishing tasks should not be underestimated, especially when considering the reliance on team members’ expertise and ability to work together. In reality, the confidence that top-level executives place in teams is widely recognized as a key factor in enabling effective coordination and wise decision-making. (Montgomery, 2020).

The study also revealed a community dimension of leadership, focusing on the university’s capacity to become resilient and grow in a post-pandemic world. The practices implemented during the pandemic were perceived as being for application even in non-pandemic conditions. This openness to change was seen as a dimension of the institution facing the challenges. Leadership exemplarity in the academic field, as demonstrated by a university rector or president, plays a significant role in shaping the reputation and performance of an institution. It fosters a culture of excellence, continuous learning, and the pursuit of knowledge and influences the institution’s ability to adapt and grow in the face of challenges.

The leadership of a university’s rector or president plays a pivotal role in shaping the institution’s academic performance and overall ethos. Chatelain-Ponroy et al. (2018) said the significance of a positive attitude towards performance-based management, highlighting its correlation with the commitment to university publicness. They further delineate that different groups within the academic profession, based on their professional status and managerial position, have varying attitudes toward performance-based management and university publicness (Chatelain-Ponroy et al., 2018).

The research performance of university leaders, including presidents and department deans, is significantly influenced by their administrative services (Lou et al., 2018). Breakwell & Tytherleigh (2010) argue that while the characteristics of its leader may shape the performance of a university, most variability is explained by non-leadership factors (Breakwell & Tytherleigh, 2010). Cardno (2013) emphasizes the emergence of new and varied forms of academic leadership in university settings, suggesting a blend of leadership and management roles (Cardno, 2013).

4.2. Academic in breeding in public university

Academic inbreeding is a concept where universities hire their graduates as faculty members, has been a topic of considerable debate in higher education research. Morichika & Shibayama (2015) found that inbred academics tend to change research subjects less frequently over their career, suggesting that inbreeding may deter creativity and lead to risk aversion. Laboratories with higher rates of their graduates were found to have lower productivity. This aligns with the findings of Inanc & Tuncer (2011) using a dataset from Turkish Technical Universities, demonstrated that academic inbreeding negatively impacts scientific effectiveness. On the other hand, Horta et al. (2011) highlighted that academic inbreeding is prevalent in Japanese universities due to the emphasis on organizational stability and institutional identity.

Public universities, specifically those with an established history and tradition, frequently demonstrate a greater occurrence of academic inbreeding. This phenomenon can be attributed to prioritizing institutional stability, identity, and safeguarding institutional values and practices. (Horta et al., 2011). Older universities and those with longer-established disciplinary areas tend to show higher levels of inbreeding, suggesting that institutional age plays a significant role in this phenomenon (Tavares et al., 2019). In Japan, the importance of maintaining organizational stability and reinforcing institutional identity has made academic inbreeding a common practice in public universities (Horta et al., 2011). Academic inbreeding provides an opportunity for alumni to climb their academic or managerial careers more easily.

The implications of academic inbreeding are not solely negative. Horta & Yudkevich (2016) posited the notion that the phenomenon of academic inbreeding, which refers to the practice of appointing faculty members from the same institution where they obtained their academic credentials, may not be as deleterious as previously posited. In actuality, certain studies have suggested that inbreeding could facilitate positive contributions to the advancement of higher education systems, notably during their nascent stages. Although inbreeding does indeed entail potential drawbacks, such as the absence of diversity and novel perspectives, it is imperative to also acknowledge the potential advantages. It postulates a more adverse impact in subsequent stages. Altbach et al. (2015) stated while it has been articulated that the practice of inbreeding has detrimental consequences on institutions of higher education, it is commonly regarded as an intrinsic component of academic existence, wherein certain favorable aspects are discernible. Tavares et al. (2019) have observed that individuals with a foreign doctorate in academia are inclined to receive citations at a higher rate compared to those who completed their doctorate in Portugal. This highlights the advantages of having a diverse and mobile academic community.

Several previous studies have shown that there is relevance related to the internationalization orientation of education to the qualifications of the rector (Gerashchenko, 2022) Karadag (2021) good international academic reputations tend to have better academic performance than universities led by rectors with low academic reputations. This suggests that individual instances contribute to the performance of the institution. Higher education leaders who have experience in the industrial world tend to encourage institutions to focus more on entrepreneurship (Meoli et al., 2019). The rector who has experience of international academic mobility will facilitate the same when he leads the university (Civera et al., 2020). Leadership professors can create new knowledge, maintain standards in publications, assist young research academics, secure competitive grants, enhance their institution’s reputation, and use their expertise to influence public debate (Uslu & Welch, 2018).

4.3. Bibliometrics as academic measurements

Bibliometrics encompasses an approach aimed at examining scholarly publications, particularly its efficacy in gauging the influence of scientific research. Bibliometric measures, including Document Count, Citation Count, H-index, and Impact Factor, are at the heart of this methodology, acknowledged for their crucial contribution to scholarly evaluations. (Belter, 2015). The document count measures an author’s or institution’s productivity, representing the total number of publications attributed to them. The Citation Count and H-Index are widely recognized as important metrics to evaluate the impact and productivity of scientific publications and authors. The Citation Count measures the number of times a particular work has been cited by subsequent publications, while the H-Index considers both productivity and citation impact to offer a more comprehensive evaluation of an author’s scholarly contributions. These metrics are important in determining the significance and influence of scientific research and its authors. The Impact Factor is employed to gauge a journal’s prestige and influence based on the mean citation frequency of articles published within a specific timeframe.

The application of bibliometric indicators is challenging. Wildgaard (2015) emphasized that author-level bibliometric indicators are influenced by various factors, including the coverage of papers and citations in databases and how these indicators are calculated. Ruocco et al. (2017) explained associated with bibliometric indicators, suggesting that their distribution might only sometimes correlate with a scholar’s merit and achievements. Franchignoni et al. (2011) stated that the information provided by bibliometric indicators might not be sufficiently valid to serve as the sole objective criterion for career assessment.

Belter (2015) stated although bibliometric indicators can provide valuable insights, they are often used out of context, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive understanding of their application and potential limitations. When meticulously analysed through refined bibliometric techniques, Citation data delivers an empirical assessment that transcends mere quantitative evaluation, shedding light on the calibre, quality, and intrinsic value of research outputs. These insights are instrumental for academic stakeholders, offering a comparative lens to evaluate and contrast the scholarly contributions of diverse entities and identifying avenues for enhancement and innovation. Communities. Several bibliometric indicators stand out for their pivotal role in scholarly assessments. These include:

1. Document Count: This metric quantitatively measures an author’s or institution’s productivity, reflecting the total number of publications attributed to them.

2. Citation Count: As an acknowledged influence metric, the citation count quantifies the extent to which subsequent publications reference a work.

3. H-Index: This composite indicator evaluates an author’s dual productivity and citation impact criteria, rooted in their most cited works and the number of citations those works have received.

4. Impact Factor: Employed to measure a journal’s prestige and influence, the impact factor assesses the mean citation frequency of articles published within a designated timeframe.

5. Methods

The adoption of bibliometrics as a method for assessing leadership efficacy in universities, as advocated by Blaginin et al. (2019), involves evaluating scholarly publications and citations from global repositories like Scopus and Web of Science. In alignment with the findings of Goodall (2009), who conducted a regression test linking citations to rectors’ research performance, our research aims to evaluate the academic performance of rectors in Indonesian state universities. Extending this approach, as demonstrated by Karadag (2021) in the analysis of 197 Turkish university rectors, we utilize bibliometric indicators such as Scopus ID, Citation, Amount of Document, and H-Index. The list of state universities is derived from the Ministry of Education and Culture, resulting in 3078 data points. Employing triangulation from diverse sources, including university websites and the Higher Education Database, we create comprehensive profiles, yielding 82 usable profiles for 2706 data points. Notably, eleven profiles with untraceable Scopus IDs are excluded, and the missing data is cross-referenced with the Sinta Science and Technology Index. This research methodology aligns with the principles of triangulation as discussed in Thomas & Raheem (2020), providing a robust foundation for our study.

Based on this idea, our research aims to evaluate the academic performance of rectors of state universities in Indonesia. Using data from 93 rector profile data in various state universities, researchers then created profiles based on leading institutions, publication affiliation, gender, age, academic level, institutional status, type of institution, educational origin, Scopus ID, Citation, Amount of Document: H-Index. The list of state universities that are the object of this study is obtained from the List of State Universities that are registered on the National Selection Website for New Student Admissions (SNPMB) of the Ministry of Education and Culture of the Republic of Indonesia as of August 31, 2023, which produces 3078 data. Based on the list, researchers profiled the data of rectors using open data sources derived from the website of the university concerned, the Higher Education Database of the Ministry of Education and Culture of the Republic of Indonesia (PDDIKTI Kemendikbud), Sinta Science and Technology Index of the Ministry of Education and Culture of the Republic of Indonesia (Sinta Kemendikbud), and profiles of rectors on the Scopus website.

Researchers then triangulate the data with other open sources such as Wikipedia, personal blogs, or news indexed in search engines. The triangulation results resulted in 82 rector profiles from 93 profiles that could be used in research with 2706 data. Researchers did not use 11 rector profiles with seven doctoral qualifications and four professors because their Scopus IDs could not be found, so they could not be processed using a bibliometric approach. Researchers have also triangulated the data of these eleven people with existing data from the Sinta Science and Technology Index of the Ministry of Education and Culture of the Republic of Indonesia (Sinta Kemendikbud). Based on this data, researchers then create distribution tables based on categories.

This analysis builds upon the analytical framework presented by Karadag (2021), which focused on examining bibliometric data within a specific demographic scope, namely gender. In contrast, our study offers a more comprehensive elucidation by considering a wider range of variables. Specifically, we will subject the collected bibliometric data to cross-tabulation, taking into account factors such as degree, gender, educational background, background fields, region, document count, citation, and H-Index. This particular methodology has been specifically tailored to suit the Indonesian context, characterized by its vast archipelagic geographic spread. As a result, it allows for a detailed portrayal of the disparities that exist across the various islands. The organization and composition of this examination can be witnessed in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Search flow profiling.

6. Findings

The graphical representation of the research data is depicted in Figure 2. Based on 82 rectors studied, as many as 32 rectors, or around 39%, came from Java, making it the island with the most rector representation. Sumatra is in second place with 24 rectors, about 29% of the total. Despite coming in third, Celebes have 11 rectors or about 13.4% of the total. Borneo, Bali, and Nusa Tenggara have 5 and 6 rectors, respectively, representing about 6.1% and 7.3% of the total rectors. Papua has three rectors, or 3.7%, while Moluccas are represented by only one rector, less than 1.2% of the total.

Figure 2. Data distribution.

In the context of the type of institution, as many as 56 rectors, or around 68.3% of the total, came from universities. Meanwhile, Islamic University is represented by 17 rectors or about 20.7%. The Institute of Technology has five rectors, representing 6.1% of the total. The Arts Institute has three rectors, or 3.7%, while the Institute of Agriculture has only one rector, representing 1.2% of the total.

More specifically, on the island of Java, 22 of the 32 rectors came from universities, six from Islamic universities, two from institutes of technology, and one from the Arts Institute and Institute of Agriculture. In Sumatra, 14 rectors came from universities, seven from Islamic universities, two from Arts Institutes, and one from institutes of technology. While in Celebes, eight rectors came from the University and two from the Islamic University, with one rector from the Institute of Technology.

6.1. Demographic characteristics of the rector

The dominance of men in the position of rector is particularly striking in all age groups. Of the rectors, 89.02% were men, and only 10.98% were women (Table 1). Although there is a representation of women in some age groups, the proportion is always much lower compared to men. This suggests there are challenges or obstacles that women may face in achieving leadership positions in educational institutions, or there may be certain preferences or biases in selecting rectors.

Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the rector.

Age Interval	Female		Total Female	Female (%)	Male		Total Male	Male (%)	Total
	Professor	Doctor			Professor	Doctor
41-45	0	0	0	00.00	1	0	1	100.00.00	1
46-50	1	0	1	11.11	7	1	8	88.89	9
51-55	2	0	2	10.00	16	2	18	90.00.00	20
56-60	4	0	4	11.43	26	5	31	88.57.00	35
61-65	2	0	2	0,5111111	12	3	15	88.24.00	17
Total	9	0	9	0,4847222	62	11	73	89.02.00	82

When we look at Table 1, the age and gender distribution, most rectors are 56-60, covering 42.68% of the total rectors. In this age group, of the 35 rectors, 4 were women, and 31 were men, indicating male dominance even in the age group with the most representation. The 41-45 age group has only one rector, who is also male, suggesting that it is very rare for individuals in their early 40s to become rectors, and in this case, no women are represented. Meanwhile, the age group of 61-65 years has 17 rectors, of which 2 are women, and 15 are men, indicating that male dominance remains despite approaching retirement age.

Regarding academic qualifications, the title of Professor predominates among rectors in all age groups and genders. This suggests that educational institutions select individuals with the highest academic qualifications for leadership positions. Of the total rectors, 86.59% have the title of Professor, while only 13.41% have a Doctorate. In addition, although there are some male rectors with doctoral degrees, especially in older age groups, there is not a single female rector with a doctorate (Table 1).

In particular, the dominance of the title of Professor is more conspicuous among female rectors. All female rectors, without exception, have the title of Professor. This signifies that women who achieve the position of rector usually have the highest academic qualifications. Despite an increase in the number of male rectors with Doctorates in the older age group, the title of Professor remains the most dominant.

6.2. Rector’s educational background

The Figure 3 shows a striking pattern for academic leaders. Significantly, 100% of the rectors of state universities that were the object of this study were nine women and 73 men, completing their undergraduate education at universities in Indonesia. The absence of an international undergraduate education background among rectors may reflect a deep belief in the quality of education in Indonesia or may indicate the existence of certain barriers to accessing education abroad.

Figure 3. Rector’s educational background.

In a detailed analysis of 82 rectors in various parts of Indonesia, interesting patterns emerged regarding the backgrounds of their university alumni (Figure 3). Data shows that 56 rectors, or about 68%, are alumni of the universities they currently lead. Meanwhile, 26 other rectors, or about 32%, have no alums affiliation with the institution. They lack leadership capacity. For example, in Java, 25 out of 32 rectors are alums of their universities, while in Sumatra, only 10 out of 24 rectors have similar backgrounds (Figure 3). There is a tendency for academic inbreeding to choose rectors who are alumni themselves.

Regarding further education, 56 out of 73 male rectors (i.e. about 77%) and 6 out of 9 female rectors (i.e. about 67%) obtained their master’s degrees in Indonesia (Figure 3). However, Australia attracted six male rectors for master’s studies, while Canada also had six males. At the doctoral level, 49 rectors (or about 67%) chose Indonesia as their place to complete their studies, but Australia and Malaysia were each the destinations for seven rectors (Figure 3).

6.3. Background fields of the rector

Researchers used the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) to classify the rectors’ areas of expertise with departmental homebase information from 82 rectors sourced from the Higher Education Database of the Ministry of Education and Culture of the Republic of Indonesia (PDDikti Kemendikbud).

Based on the ISCED classification at the Table 2, ‘Engineering, Manufacturing, and Construction’ has 18 rectors, consisting of 2 female and 16 male rectors. The ‘Business, Administration, and Law’ category includes 15 rectors, with 2 of them being women and 13 being men. While ‘Education’ also includes 15 rectors with a distribution of 3 female rectors and 12 male rectors.

Table 2. Background fields of the rector.

ISCED Category	Fields Included	Female	Male	Total
Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries and Veterinary	Husbandry, Agriculture, Fisheries, Veterinary, Agrotechnology	1	8	9
Arts and Humanities	Studies of Religions, Art, Islamic Studies, Sufism, Qur’an Science and Tafsir	0	7	7
Business, Administration, and Law	Management, Law, Economics, Accounting, Public Administration	2	13	15
Education	Tadris English, Pancasila and Civic Education, Social Science Education, Indonesian Education, Islamic Religious Education, Sports, Islamic Education Management, Education Management	3	12	15
Engineering, Manufacturing, and Construction	Engineering	2	16	18
Health and Welfare	Medical Science	1	0	1
Natural Sciences, Mathematics, and Statistics	Microbiology, Mathematics, Chemistry, Marine, Physics, Biology	0	7	7
Social Sciences, Journalism, and Information	Humanities Studies, Sociology of Religion, Sociology, Psychology, Politics, Islamic Political Thought, Communication Sciences, Guidance and Counselling	0	10	10

The category ‘Social Sciences, Journalism, and Information’ is represented by ten male rectors, with no female rectors. ‘Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries, and Veterinary’ has nine rectors, with one female and eight male rectors. ‘Arts and Humanities’ and ‘Natural Sciences, Mathematics, and Statistics’ were each represented by seven male rectors. Finally, ‘Health and Welfare’ was represented by one female rector.

Of the total 82 rectors, there are nine female and 73 male rectors. This distribution shows the variation of gender representation by field of study in academic leadership capacity in higher education institutions in Indonesia (Table 2). Male dominance is evident in almost all categories, suggesting that leadership positions, particularly at the rector level, are still dominated by men. Although there is a representation of women in some categories, the proportion is much smaller compared to men. This signifies the need for women’s empowerment and gender equality in leadership capacities in higher education institutions.

6.4. Gender-based analysis of document count

Of the total 82 rectors whose productivity data were showed at Table 3, as many as 37 rectors were in low productivity intervals, with the number of documents between 1 and 9. Among these 37 rectors, 15 male rectors (40.5%) and 22 female rectors (59.5%) fall into this category. This indicates that about 45% of the total rectors have relatively low productivity in producing academic documents. At intervals of 10 to 30 documents, there were 29 rectors. In this category, 25 male rectors (86%) and four female rectors (14%) have moderate productivity. This suggests that about 35% of rectors have moderate productivity, with significant male dominance.

Table 3. Gender-based analysis of document count.

Fields	Female Rector Document						Male Rector Document
	3	7	10	15	29	33	1	2	3	4	5	6	8	9	10	11	12	13	16	17	18	19	20	21	23	25	30	35	36	37	38	39	43	45	48	50	57	62	149	160	175
Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries and Veterinary		1						1	1	1		1	1	1										1															1
Arts and Humanities							2		2		1		1	1
Business, Administration, and Law			2					2	2		1	1						1		1		2	1		1								1
Education	2				1		1	1		1	1	4				1		1					1			1
Engineering, Manufacturing, and Construction				1	1			1		1			1		1	1	1					1	1				1			1	1			1	1	1		1		1
Health and Welfare						1
Natural Sciences, Mathematics, and Statistics																					1	1						1	1			1					1				1
Social Sciences, Journalism, and Information									1	3			1			1			3								1
Grand Total	2	1	2	1	2	1	3	5	6	6	3	6	4	2	1	3	1	2	3	1	1	4	3	1	1	1	2	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1

Meanwhile, there are 16 rectors with more than 30 documents. Of these, 14 male rectors (87.5%) and two female rectors (12.5%) fall into the high productivity category (Table 3). This shows that about 20% of rectors have high productivity in producing academic documents. Low and medium productivity, dominated by over 80% of rectors, raises questions about the factors affecting this productivity. Clear gender disparities suggest that male rectors are more productive or have access to more resources for research and publication.

6.5. Citations by gender and academic degree

In an in-depth analysis of Scopus research citation data of PTN rectors in Indonesia, variations and complexity in the number and distribution of citations that showed at Table 4 became clear. There were 18 rectors, 16 men and two women, or 22% of the total data, with citations below 10. Meanwhile, 32 rectors (39%), with 28 men, had citations between 10 and 50 (Table 4). This category indicates that despite the increase in research impact and recognition, there is still significant room for growth and development globally.

Table 4. Citations by gender and academic degree.

Citation	Doctor Female	Doctor Male	Professor Female	Professor Male	Grand Total
0	0	2	0	3	5
1	0	2	1	3	6
2	0	0	0	1	1
4	0	0	0	3	3
5	0	1	0	1	2
6	0	2	0	0	2
7	0	0	0	2	2
9	0	0	1	1	2
10	0	1	0	1	2
12	0	0	0	2	2
13	0	0	0	1	1
15	0	0	0	1	1
16	0	0	0	1	1
17	0	1	1	1	3
18	0	0	0	1	1
20	0	0	1	1	2
22	0	0	0	1	1
23	0	0	0	1	1
24	0	0	0	1	1
25	0	0	0	1	1
26	0	0	0	1	1
27	0	0	0	1	1
31	0	0	0	2	2
36	0	0	0	1	1
39	0	0	0	1	1
41	0	0	2	0	2
44	0	1	0	1	2
46	0	1	0	0	1
48	0	0	0	1	1
49	0	0	0	1	1
55	0	0	0	1	1
59	0	0	0	1	1
62	0	0	0	1	1
64	0	0	0	2	2
78	0	0	0	1	1
79	0	0	0	1	1
83	0	0	0	1	1
87	0	0	0	1	1
96	0	0	1	1	2
141	0	0	0	1	1
167	0	0	0	1	1
175	0	0	0	2	2
186	0	0	1	0	1
193	0	0	0	1	1
235	0	0	0	1	1
248	0	0	0	1	1
277	0	0	0	1	1
297	0	0	0	1	1
336	0	0	0	1	1
373	0	0	0	1	1
531	0	0	1	0	1
1092	0	0	0	1	1
1188	0	0	0	1	1
1258	0	0	0	1	1
1500	0	0	0	1	1
4606	0	0	0	1	1
Grand Total	0	11	9	62	82

When discussing the citation range of 100 to 250, we see an increase in the number of rectors whose research is widely recognized. Twenty-two rectors (26.8%), consisting of 20 men and two women, were in this category (Table 4)). On the other hand, eight rectors (9.8%) had citations between 250 and 500, signifying success in reaching a global audience and their significant contribution to the development of science.

Interestingly, in the higher citation category, we see the dominance of the field of natural science at Table 4. The Rector with work in the field of Fisheries showed a significant number of citations, with the highest citation reaching 4606. In the range of 500 to 750 citations, the category inhabited by six male rectors (7.3%) is also dominated by fields such as Fisheries, Biology, Physics, and Engineering.

The diversity of these fields becomes clearer when we look at the range of 750 to 1250 citations (Table 4). Nine rectors (11%) contribute here, with fields such as Economics, Marine, and Engineering, demonstrating the diversity and richness of research. This reflects multidisciplinary integration and adaptability in responding to complex global challenges.

From the data, natural science dominates in terms of citations. Fields such as Engineering, Physics, and Biology often appear in the high citation category. In contrast, despite their important contributions, other fields, such as Accounting, Sociology, and Medicine, have not reached the same citation level. This indicates that research in natural science is likely to have a wider global reach and impact. This analysis reveals distinctive patterns and trends in the research citations of PTN rectors in Indonesia. There is a clear gender imbalance and dominance of natural science in high citations.

6.6. Documents and citations by region

The productivity of rectors in various regions of Indonesia that shows significant variations, especially in the context of the number of published documents and total citations (Figure 4). Java Island, which has 32 rectors, stands out as the region with the highest academic productivity, recording 804 documents and 6,134 citations (Figure 4). This could be because Java is the center of academic and research activity in Indonesia, with many higher education institutions. Despite having 24 rectors, Sumatra’s productivity in terms of publications and citations is not comparable to Java. Sumatra recorded 460 documents with a total of 2,816 citations. However, the most interesting find comes from Celebes Island (Figure 4). Despite having only 11 rectors, Celebes recorded 293 publication documents, ranking third after Java and Sumatra. Even more impressive, the total citations from these documents reached 5,089, which is only slightly lower than Java. This interesting fact can be explained by the existence of a rector in Celebes who has 4,606 individual citations compared to all 11 rector citations in Celebes with a total of 5089 (Figure 4). This shows that although the number of publications is not as large as the rector in Java or Sumatra, the quality of research and its academic impact is very significant, at least measured by the number of citations. Other regions such as Bali and Nusa Tenggara, Borneo, Moluccas, and Papua have relatively lower productivity. Bali and Nusa Tenggara, for example, have six rectors with 71 documents and 408 citations. Borneo, with five rectors, recorded 56 documents and 210 citations (Figure 4). Moluccas and Papua have only one and three rectors, respectively, with very low document and citation productivity.

Figure 4. Number of documents (ND) and number of citations (NC) by region.

6.7. Document count by academic position

We can observe interesting trends related to the research productivity of PTN rectors in Indonesia based on their academic backgrounds (Table 5). Rectors with Professor backgrounds show higher productivity levels than rectors with Doctoral backgrounds. The data shows 11 documents produced by doctoral professors, with an average productivity of around 0.35 documents per rector (Table 5). In contrast, rectors with the title of Professor have produced 70 documents, with an average of about 2.92 documents per rector (Table 5). The standard deviation for the Professor category was 3.23, indicating a wider variation in document productivity compared to the 1.14 standard deviation observed in rectors with a Doctorate (Table 5).

Table 5. Document count by academic position.

Interval	Doctor	Professor
1-3	5	11
4-6	4	11
7-9	0	7
10-12	1	6
13-15	0	3
16-18	1	4
19-21	0	7
22-24	0	1
25-27	0	1
28-30	0	4
31-33	0	1
34-36	0	2
37-39	0	3
40-42	0	0
43-45	0	2
46-48	0	1
49-51	0	1
52-54	0	0
55-57	0	1
58-60	0	0
61-63	0	1
64-147	0	0
148-150	0	1
151-153	0	0
154-156	0	0
157-159	0	0
160-162	0	1
163-165	0	0
166-168	0	0
169-171	0	0
172-174	0	0
175-177	0	1

In the distribution context, most rectors with doctoral backgrounds tend to have relatively low document productivity, with most being around 0, as indicated by a median of 0. In contrast, rectors with Professor backgrounds show a more balanced distribution with a median of 1. The maximum value of documents produced by rectors with doctoral backgrounds is 5, while for rectors with professor backgrounds, it reaches 11. This suggests that regarding research volume and publications, rectors with the title of Professor tend to be more productive. This difference can be attributed to experience, collaborative networks, and access to research resources.

6.8. H-index based on gender and degree

The Figure 5 shows that no female doctors were recorded in the data. In contrast, there were 11 male doctors with varying h-index distributions: 2 doctors had an h-index of 0 and 1 (18.18% of the total male doctors for each h-index), six doctors with h-index of 2 (54.55%), and one doctor with h-index of 3 (9.09%). In the professor category, the distribution of h-indices is wider. There are two female professors with h-index 1 and 2 (22.22% for each h-index), one professor with h-index 3 (11.11%), and two professors with h-index 4 (22.22%). Meanwhile, for male professors, 3 had an h-index of 0 (4.84%), 8 had an h-index of 1 (12.90%), 16 had an h-index of 2 (25.81%), 7 had an h-index of 3 (11.29%), 6 with an h-index of 4 (9.68%), and so on with different distributions for higher h-indexes,

Figure 5. H-index based on gender and degree.

Researchers concluded that most doctors and professors, both male and female, have an h-index that tends to be low. This is evident in 72.73% of male doctors with an h-index below 3. Meanwhile, 77.42% of male professors had an h-index below 5 (Figure 5). Female professors have a more even distribution, with 44.44% having h-indices 1 and 2, indicating moderate productivity and citation impact (Figure 5). There are six male rectors with prominent professorships with significant h-indexes. Four male professors had an h-index above 10. One professor has an h-index of 20; There is even one individual who has an h-index above 31, which places him as the rector with the highest h-index.

6.9. H-index based on region

Based on the distribution of the H-Index by region that showed at Figure 6, researchers found the rectors’ uneven reputation in Indonesia. Six rectors (7%) do not have an H-Index throughout Indonesia (Figure 6). This shows that there are still rectors whose work has not been cited or had a scientific impact. Most rectors, about 76 out of 82, have an H-Index less than 10 (Figure 6). Only a small group had a higher H-Index, with six individuals having a double-digit H-Index. Someone from Fisheries has the highest H-Index, 31, followed by individuals from Biology with 20, two individuals from Engineering with 18 and 12, one from Marine with 18, and one from accounting with 11 (Figure 6). There are more details regarding the distribution of the lower H-Index. There are five people with an H-Index of 9 and 4 with 8, and the distribution decreases as the H-Index decreases. Twenty-four individuals had an H-Index of 2, the highest number in the lower H-Index category. Based on the line graph, it shows that most rectors of state universities in Indonesia have an h-index in the range of 1 to 3. This shows the possibility of low productivity and citations in their fields of study.

Figure 6. H-index distribution based on region.

H-index analysis of PTN rectors in Indonesia reveals significant inequality. Although the average H-index in some regions is high, the data distribution shows that most rectors have a relatively low H-index. Not calculated, the average h-index of each region is very high. For example, on the island of Celebes, most rectors have an h-index less than or equal to 3 (Figure 7). On the other hand, all rectors on the island of Celebes have an average H-Index of 5.45 (Figure 7). Of course, this is unacceptable, but one rector with an H-index of 31 causes the average H-index to be higher (Figure 7). Without these rectors, the average H-index for the region would be much lower, reflecting that most rectors have a more moderate or even low H-index.

Figure 7. H-indexs comparison based on region.

7. Discussion

Discussion of research results related to the condition and dynamics of leadership in state universities in Indonesia will be presented in detail in this section. This study presents important findings on gender imbalance, educational and academic qualifications, productivity, academic impact, and the geographical and institutional distribution of rectors of state universities in Indonesia. Each of these aspects has been explored in depth to provide a comprehensive overview of the unique challenges, opportunities, and dynamics affecting the higher education sector in the country. Critical analysis of these findings aims to spark constructive and reflective dialogue, ultimately informing effective strategies and interventions to address the key issues identified.

7.1. Gender imbalance

The study conducted by the researchers revealed that a significant majority of rectors in public universities in Indonesia were of the male gender, with a mere fraction being female. To be specific, out of the eighty-two rectors examined, 89.02% were male, while a meager 10.98% were female (Table 1). This gender disparity was not restricted solely to overall figures, but continued to persist across various age groups and academic qualifications. Even among rectors aged between 56 and 60 years, merely four out of thirty-five were women. Notably, all female rectors held the esteemed title of Professor, implying that women may be expected to attain the highest academic qualifications in order to progress to leadership positions. This gives rise to concerns regarding potential systematic barriers or biases that could impede the progression of women with lesser qualifications towards assuming leadership roles.

In the domain of scholarly output, an alarming disparity between genders becomes evident. Among the thirty-seven rectors who exhibited low productivity, specifically 1-9 documents, 59.5% were of the female gender. This indicates the obstacles faced by women in authoritative roles when it comes to bolstering scholarly output. This observation underscores the necessity to thoroughly investigate the fundamental causes and repercussions of this gender discrepancy. It incites thought-provoking inquiries about equal opportunities, representation, and the potential structural and systemic prejudices that may hinder gender equality in academic leadership. It is an imperative realm that commands attention to guarantee that talent and leadership receive recognition and support irrespective of gender, thus fostering a more comprehensive, just, and diverse educational landscape.

7.2. Education and qualifications

According to research findings, all rectors in Indonesia have completed their undergraduate studies, suggesting a lack of diversity in their academic backgrounds. This uniformity could impede the introduction of varied perspectives and teaching methods into their institutions. Over two-thirds of these rectors are alumni of the universities they now lead, which raises concerns about academic inbreeding.

In the context of postgraduate education, 77% of male rectors and 67% of female rectors earned their master’s degrees in Indonesia (Figure 3). This could indicate a preference for domestic education or signify obstacles to international education. These findings raise questions about how limited international exposure impacts innovation and creativity within the academic community. The study noted that 86.59% of the rectors held the title of Professor, highlighting that high academic qualifications are a norm in these leadership positions. However, whether this reflects the quality of education and research or is more aligned with tradition and social norms requires further investigation.

These findings underscore the need for a deeper exploration of the implications of such educational homogeneity and its effects on the academic landscape in Indonesia. Addressing these issues could promote a richer diversity of thought, experience, and innovation, essential components for advancing education and research in the country.

7.3. Productivity and academic impact

Researchers found that 45% of rectors exhibited low productivity, generating only between 1 to 9 documents (Table 3). In contrast, a mere 20% of rectors exhibited a high level of productivity, generating more than thirty documents. These findings reveal a substantial opportunity for improvement in academic productivity among the rectors of public universities in Indonesia. The investigation has brought to light a gender disparity in academic productivity. Specifically, the majority of rectors displaying low productivity were of the female gender (59.5%), whereas the male gender accounted for the majority of those with high productivity (87.5%) (Table 3). These outcomes imply that the underrepresentation of women in leadership roles is reflected in their scholarly output. Additionally, the researchers observed that 22% of rectors possessed fewer than ten citations, with noticeable variations in citation rates in the realm of natural sciences.

This implies that while productivity is essential, much work must be done to increase the recognition and impact of academic research. The field of study plays a crucial role in determining academic visibility. These findings demonstrate the complex challenges in improving academic output and the need to address gender disparities and promote equal support and recognition for all scholars. Further investigation and targeted interventions are required to enhance productivity, impact, and the global reputation of Indonesian scholars and institutions.

7.4. Geographical and institutional distribution

The research delineates that 39% of university rectors originate from Java, underscoring a pronounced concentration of academic leadership within this island (Figure 2). Yet, an intriguing anomaly emerges when dissecting academic productivity by geographical region: Celebes, with a mere eleven rectors, boasts 5,089 citations (Figure 4). This underscores a discernible disparity in the calibre of research output across Indonesia’s diverse regions.

Java’s aggregation of resources, infrastructural prowess, and preeminent educational establishments have fostered an ambiance conducive to the flourishing of academic professionals. This preference can be attributed to a confluence of historical, economic, and political determinants perennially positioned Java as the fulcrum of Indonesia’s socioeconomic evolution. Java has perennially functioned as the nation’s administrative and economic nexus, magnetizing investments and developmental endeavours that have reciprocally augmented the stature of its educational edifices. The infrastructural and academic amenities proffered by Java’s scholastic milieu are often unparalleled, marked by universities replete with state-of-the-art facilities, a cadre of seasoned academicians, and robust research and innovation undertakings. Empirical data accentuates a preponderance of accredited institutions, research hubs, and scholarly publications from this region compared to its counterparts.

The tendency towards ‘academic inbreeding’ in certain regions, especially Java, is another critical aspect that warrants attention. In this region, 25 of 32 rectors are alumni of their respective universities (Figure 3). This prevalence of inbreeding raises significant questions about its impact on intellectual diversity and innovation. Data suggest that campuses with elevated levels of inbreeding often face challenges such as a lack of diverse perspectives, limited innovation, and a tendency to adhere to established norms and practices. Such environments might struggle to foster creativity and critical thinking among students and faculty. Additionally, the absence of varied academic influences can limit the breadth and depth of research and the development of comprehensive curricula responsive to global trends and challenges. There is an essential need to assess and address the potential limitations imposed by academic inbreeding to ensure the evolution and dynamism of Indonesia’s higher education landscape.

Regarding the type of institutions, 68.3% of rectors come from universities, while another 20.7% are from Islamic Universities (Figure 2). The researchers identified a need for greater variety in institutional leadership to encourage innovation and a diversity of perspectives in higher education.

These findings spotlight critical areas for intervention, including decentralizing academic leadership and resources, combating academic inbreeding, and fostering diverse and innovative learning environments. Addressing these challenges can enrich the academic landscape, promoting equity, quality, and innovation in higher education across all regions of Indonesia.

7.5. H-index and scientific reputation

Researchers uncovered that most rectors have a low H-Index; 72.73% of male doctors and 77.42% of male professors possess an H-Index below 5 (Figure 5). This suggests that many rectors have not yet significantly impacted the global research community despite holding leadership positions. It points towards an underlying issue where leadership roles are not directly proportional to the individual’s contributions to or recognition of international research. It raises questions about the criteria for appointing rectors and the avenues available to enhance their research impact.

There is a pronounced imbalance in the distribution of H-Index scores by region. While the mean H-Index for Celebes stands at 5.45, most rectors in this region present a subdued H-Index, with a singular rector registering an impressive H-Index of thirty-one (Figure 7). This observation accentuates the premise that individual scholarly accolades can markedly skew regional mean values, emphasizing the imperative for a nuanced methodology when appraising research influence. Such disparities can be traced back to myriad determinants, encompassing the availability of research grants, the density of dedicated research institutions, and affiliations with global research entities. A meticulous scrutiny of these components may illuminate specific domains warranting strategic interventions to amplify the collective research footprint of the locale.

The researchers also observed an imbalance in the H-Index based on fields of study. Natural sciences dominate the higher H-Index categories, while other fields like humanities and social sciences have lower representation. This raises questions about how resource allocation, research priorities, and research infrastructure influence the rector’s scientific impact and reputation. For instance, natural sciences often have measurable and tangible outcomes, leading to higher citations and, hence, a higher H-Index. In contrast, contributions in humanities and social sciences might not be as easily quantifiable or universally applicable, resulting in lower citation counts. Addressing this imbalance involves considering the nuances of each field’s contribution and developing metrics and support systems that recognize and elevate the varied yet essential inputs from all academic disciplines.

7.6. Research quality and impact

Although research publications vary in number, their quality and impact do not always align with the volume of publications, according to researchers. For instance, while Java boasts the highest number of publications, the total citations are not commensurate with those of Celebes, where fewer publications have garnered higher citations. This highlights the complex dynamics between the quantity and quality of academic publications and emphasizes the need for a nuanced understanding of the factors that contribute to impactful research beyond mere quantitative assessments.

Additionally, researchers noted a tendency for rectors with Professor titles to be more productive regarding research volume. However, the distribution of the H-Index shows that scientific impact is not proportional. The a fore mentioned observation indicates that, not withstanding the abundance of scholarly articles, the caliber and pertinence of the research might not be disseminated widely or making substantial contributions to the worldwide pool of knowledge. Numerous underlying factors could be at play, such as the thoroughness of the research, the selection of journals for publication, the applicability of the findings, and the degree of collaboration with international colleagues, all of which have an impact on the citation influence.

To further assess the factors that influence the caliber and significance of research, one must consider the availability of research resources, international partnerships, and institutional backing. Each of these components plays a crucial role in shaping the outcomes of scholarly pursuits. The accessibility of cutting-edge research tools and technologies can enrich the scope and comprehensiveness of research. Collaborations on a global scale can expand the reach, applicability, and visibility of research findings. Institutional support, encompassing financial aid, mentorship, and policies that foster innovation, can establish an environment conducive to thriving research.

8. Conclusion

This investigation analyses rectors’ profiles and scholarly outputs within Indonesia’s state universities, highlighting pivotal areas of concern. A manifest gender dichotomy is observed, with leadership roles predominantly occupied by males, leaving qualified females conspicuously underrepresented. This gender gap is further accentuated by female scholars comparatively reduced academic contributions, hinting at deep-rooted systemic challenges that curtail their progression in leadership and research domains. Moreover, the evident inclination towards academic inbreeding—with a significant fraction of rectors acquiring their qualifications from domestic institutions—raises concerns about potential limitations on intellectual diversity and innovative thought.

Drawing from these insights, a pressing need emerges for a comprehensive overhaul in the methodologies employed for rectors’ selection, nurturing, and mentorship. The pronounced gender disparities in academic contributions and the prevalent trend of academic inbreeding necessitate tailored interventions to elevate women’s stature in academia and infuse greater diversity in educational experiences. Embracing a framework that champions diversity, equity, and inclusivity while enhancing research rigor and impact is indispensable for Indonesia to attain global academic and leadership benchmarks. As we look ahead, concerted, strategic measures must be implemented to rectify these imbalances, ensuring that rectors can optimally contribute to the zenith of Indonesia’s higher education and research sectors.

This study is bibliometric research that recognizes the potential for data dynamics. Variations in data may occur dynamically. The research only captures the state of data at the point of collection. Future research should explore the causes and implications of gender disparities and academic inbreeding among rectors in Indonesian state universities. Studies could examine factors contributing to the underrepresentation of women in leadership roles. Research should also investigate the impact of academic inbreeding on research quality and diversity. Comparative analysis involving rectors from diverse educational backgrounds could provide insights into leadership styles. Investigating effective strategies from other countries can guide reform in Indonesia. This research will contribute to understanding challenges and developing strategies for equitable academic leadership in higher education.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Bayu Indra Pratama

Bayu Indra Pratama serves as a dedicated Lecturer in Library and Information Science within the Department of Public Administration, Faculty of Administrative Sciences, at Universitas Brawijaya. Specializing in bibliometrics, social network analysis, and new media studies, Bayu is deeply invested in leveraging data and technology to refine the information landscape. Actively seeking research collaborations and opportunities for further study in Ph.D. programs aligned with his interests, he represents a valuable partner in academic and research initiatives. For engagement in collaborative endeavors or inquiries, reach out to Bayu at [email protected].

Adi Wijaya

Adi Wijaya, an accomplished academic, currently holds the positions of Lecturer and Research Fellow at Universitas Indonesia Maju (UIMA), Jakarta. Specializing in data science, data governance, enterprise architecture, and software development, Adi received his Doctorate in Electrical Engineering from Universitas Gadjah Mada in 2021. His research interests span bibliometric analysis and other forms of secondary research, data mining, machine learning, and health-related informatics, particularly in the realm of brain-computer interface technology. With a commitment to academic excellence and a forward-thinking approach, Adi contributes significantly to advancing the fields of information processing and technology, particularly in health and scholarly communication. His dynamic expertise and innovative contributions shape the future landscape of these domains, showcasing his dedication to both research and education. [email protected].

Budi Hermawan

Budi Hermawan, an academic who focuses on various social research mainly related to the field of marketing and tourism marketing. Currently serves as a researcher and lecturer at the Faculty of Economics and Business, Universitas Kristen Krida Wacana (Ukrida) Jakarta. His specialization is in quantitative research and multivariate statistical analysis tools for social sciences. His research interests include marketing, tourism marketing, spiritual and religious tourism, bibliometric analysis, and another secondary research. The results of his research since 2016 have given nuances and significant scientific contributions to the field of tourism, especially spiritual and religious tourism. [email protected].

Baharuddin

Baharuddin, a distinguished Senior Lecturer and Head of Biochemistry of Medical Science at the University of Surabaya, stands at the forefront of medical education and research. An alumnus of Airlangga University with a background in Medical Science, Baharuddin brings a wealth of expertise to his field. He is not only a National Book Author but also an adept Bibliometric Educator, skilled in data preparation. His proficiency extends to being an Apple Educator and a Microsoft Educator, demonstrating his commitment to integrating technology in academic settings. Renowned as a Reference Expert, his research spectrum encompasses data analysis, molecular studies, and the critical processes of reference and review. Baharuddin’s dedication is evident in his relentless pursuit of harnessing technology for accelerating the synthesis and extraction of knowledge, making significant contributions to the field of medical science and education. [email protected].

Purwoko

Purwoko is a librarian at the UGM Faculty of Engineering, received his Master’s degree in Cultural Studies from Gadjah Mada University in 2012. He has an interest in library services, and organizes various activities and training for library users. His research, whether published or not, is mostly related to bibliometric analysis, and efforts to improve the quality of library services, especially related to scientific writing and publications. [email protected].