Unveiling critical reading strategies and challenges: a mixed-methods study among English major students in a Vietnamese higher education institution

Abstract

The objective of this study is to evaluate the critical reading (CR) strategies utilized by English major students at a university in Vietnam, identifying both frequently employed and underutilized tactics. The study encompassed a quantitative survey of 147 students who had successfully finished a CR course in their curriculum, supplemented by qualitative data obtained from semi-structured interviews with 12 individuals. The findings suggest that students have a significant inclination to depend on lower-level cognitive abilities, rather than actively participating in higher-level critical thinking. The study reveals several obstacles that impede the development of effective critical reading skills. These include deficiencies in language proficiency, a limited comprehension of critical reading strategies, insufficient instructional assistance, and a dearth of diverse and captivating critical reading tasks. This study offers a thorough examination of the critical reading techniques and challenges encountered by students majoring in English, illuminating potential areas for enhancing pedagogical practices in reading instruction.

Keywords:

• Critical reading
• critical reading strategies
• frequency
• perception
• difficulties
• English-majored students

REVIEWING EDITOR:

• Stephen Darwin, Universidad Alberto Hurtado, Chile

SUBJECTS:

• Adult Education
• Lifelong Learning
• Study Skills

1. Introduction

Amidst an age characterized by an overwhelming abundance of information, the significance of possessing strong critical reading (CR) abilities, particularly for individuals studying English, cannot be emphasized enough. Proficiency in these abilities is essential for efficiently exploring and distinguishing the extensive range of information accessible in the digital era (Le et al., 2021, 2022). This study centers on the use and challenges of CR among English major students at a Vietnamese higher education institution.

Previous research has highlighted a significant gap in CR skills. Students often struggle with effectively analyzing complex texts, a challenge that is more pronounced in non-Western academic environments due to a lack of focused research on CR strategies (Larking, 2017; McLeod, 2018). This study aims to address this gap by examining the frequency of CR strategy use and the specific challenges faced by English majors in Vietnamese educational settings (Le & Huynh, 2022).

Employing a mixed-methods approach, this study seeks to offer insights that could improve teaching methods and foster self-directed learning among students. The investigation is driven by two primary questions:

1. How frequently do English-majored students employ CR strategies?

2. What difficulties do English-majored students encounter in the CR course?

In order to put these objectives into practice, the study assessed the frequency of CR strategies utilization by utilizing a comprehensive questionnaire that monitored the consistency with which students participated in different CR activities. This technique offers a comprehensive comprehension of the adoption rates of CR strategies among English majors. In addition, the study incorporated open-ended survey questions and follow-up interviews to evaluate the difficulties faced in CR classes. This approach enables students to express their experiences and the particular obstacles they face. This two-pronged strategy guarantees a thorough investigation of corporate responsibility practices and difficulties, establishing a direct connection between the research goals and the submitted questions, and providing a clear plan for addressing the found research deficiency.

2. Literature review

2.1. Application of bloom’s taxonomy in critical reading strategies

The study on Critical Reading (CR) methods among English-major students is based on Bloom’s Taxonomy, which categorises cognitive areas into hierarchical levels, providing a fundamental theoretical framework. The taxonomy’s systematic classification into lower-order (knowledge, comprehension, application) and higher-order (analysis, synthesis, evaluation) cognitive abilities provides a framework for evaluating and designing instructional strategies for critical thinking (Bloom et al., 1956; Brookhart, 2010; Himmele & Himmele, 2009; Veeravagu et al., 2010).

At the Knowledge level, the emphasis on remembering facts and definitions corresponds to the early stages of CR, in which students recognise essential components from texts. The focus of this level is on the ability to recognise and remember information, which serves as a foundation for understanding how students interact with texts at the most basic level of cognitive processing (Adams, 2015).

Advancing to the Comprehension level, students are expected to elucidate and interpret material. This aligns with the results of this study, which revealed that students possessed a fundamental understanding but encountered difficulties when faced with more complex analytical tasks. The taxonomy’s focus on summarising and classification at this level highlights the necessity for students to progress beyond simple identification to a more sophisticated comprehension of texts (Sönmez, 2010).

The Application level, which involves the use of acquired concepts in novel scenarios, is especially pertinent to the issues addressed in the present research. The challenges faced by students when implementing CR strategies to unfamiliar situations highlight a deficiency in teaching methods that connect theoretical understanding with real-world implementation (Dwiastuty & Nurjanah, 2016).

At the Analysis level, the taxonomy’s emphasis on dissecting texts and differentiating between facts and views offers a theoretical foundation for comprehending the analytical difficulties encountered by students. The present study emphasises the necessity for teaching methods that improve students’ capacity to analyse texts and deduce implicit messages, a crucial element of successful comprehension and response (Adams, 2015; Himmele & Himmele, 2009).

The Synthesis and Evaluation levels, which are the highest levels of cognitive complexity, are essential for advanced critical reasoning skills. The study’s findings suggest that students seldom achieve these levels, wherein they are anticipated to innovatively integrate knowledge and critically evaluate texts. The taxonomy’s focus on these advanced cognitive abilities highlights the need for educational approaches that encourage critical evaluation and creative use of analysed data (Krathwohl & Anderson, 2010; MuQeet, 2019; Surjosuseno & Watts, 1999).

To summarise, Bloom’s Taxonomy (Figure 1) serves as a valuable tool for contemporary research by offering a systematic framework for evaluating critical reasoning skills. Additionally, it helps identify areas where training can be improved to promote more advanced cognitive processes. The taxonomy’s hierarchical stages provide a structured framework for designing instructional techniques in CR education. These strategies aim to enhance students’ cognitive abilities by gradually progressing from simple knowledge recall to complex critical assessment. This approach effectively addresses the issues described in CR education.

Figure 1. Bloom’s Taxonomy. Adapted from Bloom et al. (1956).

2.2. Critical reading skills and its significance

The ability to critically analyse and analyse information is of utmost importance in today’s information-rich society, where distinguishing between true and misleading information is vital (Le et al., 2021, 2022, 2023). Across educational platforms, the importance of CR is underscored, as it goes beyond acquiring facts to develop essential skills for discernment (Bråten & Braasch, 2017). However, a notable gap exists, particularly among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students, who often lack the requisite critical reading skills for higher education (Wilson, 2016). Traditional EFL reading programs, with a focus on decoding skills, contribute to the perception of reading as a memorization exercise rather than an opportunity for application, evaluation, and synthesis (Gravatt et al., 1998; Wallace, 2003). Recent studies emphasize the deficiency of critical reading abilities among university students (Khamkhong, 2018; Khodary & AbdAllah, 2014; Par, 2022; Zin et al., 2014; Zin & Eng, 2014).

Critical reading, as characterized by Manarin et al. (2015) and Maker (1986), involves active engagement, including analytical, synthetic, and evaluative phases. Critical readers analyze, interpret, and evaluate text, empowering them to engage thoroughly with diverse texts and respond critically to assignments (Polat & Aydin, 2020).

In higher education, CR is paramount for students, exposing them to diverse perspectives, fostering the ability to challenge assumptions, identify biases, and engage in meaningful discourse - an essential component for academic success and intellectual development (Le et al., 2021, 2022). For EFL learners, proficient CR skills are crucial for constructing a comprehensive understanding of textual content and actively evaluating its reliability (Wallace & Wray, 2021). Effectively applying CR techniques allows students to navigate authentic texts, understand author intentions, recognize persuasive arguments, and identify biases, promoting informed engagement (Larking, 2017).

This study aims to better the comprehension of how critical thinking abilities are cultivated and utilised by English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students. The objective is to discover successful strategies and interventions that can improve critical thinking teaching. The study’s primary focus is on the CR process and its essential components. This coincides with the broader educational goal of educating students with the skills they need to read well and actively engage in a society where information is plentiful and varied (Jia & Guo, 2020; Luke, 2018). This investigation is crucial for the development of educational strategies that not only tackle the existing deficiencies in critical reasoning abilities among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students, but also promote a student community that is more actively involved in critical thinking and well-informed.

2.3. Critical reading strategies

Critical Reading (CR) strategies encompass a collection of methodologies and approaches specifically crafted to amplify the profundity and efficacy of reading by cultivating analytical, evaluative, and reflective cognition regarding texts (Larking, 2017). These tactics encourage readers to actively interrogate texts, fostering a more profound grasp that goes beyond surface-level understanding. They involve a range of mental processes, such as challenging assumptions, detecting biases, discerning rhetorical techniques, and comprehending the cultural and ideological foundations of a written work. The implementation and use of these strategies are crucial for gaining and honing critical reading abilities, which are vital for proficiently comprehending and analysing texts in various academic fields (Le et al., 2022, 2023).

The link between CR tactics and CR talents is mutually beneficial. CR strategies are the methods and approaches used by readers to understand complicated texts, whereas CR skills are the reader’s proficiency in using these strategies effectively. The constant and conscious application of CR methods helps to develop skills such as inference making, analysis, synthesis, evaluation, and reflection. Halpern (2014) utilises cognitive psychology to emphasise techniques that encompass the identification of causation, assessment of probability, and appraisal of evidence. These techniques directly enhance the cultivation of critical thinking and problem-solving abilities that are vital for CR (Le et al., 2021, 2022; Le & Chong, 2024).

Canagarajah (2002) integrates critical principles into English as a Foreign Language (EFL) instruction. Advocates like Jewett (2007), Yildirim and Söylemez (2018) and Hromova et al. (2021) emphasize the importance of CR across age groups. Jewett’s strategies, such as ‘whose voice’ and ‘conversations with characters,’ encourage students to critically examine story voices, consider unheard perspectives, and engage in dialogues with fictional characters.

In addition, both CR and critical literacy encompass techniques that enable readers to analyse texts for ideological messages and socio-cultural implications, hence improving their capacity to assess texts critically and engage in logical thinking (Bhowmik & Chaudhuri, 2022; Cervetti et al., 2001). By integrating extension activities such as teamwork and pair exercises, these strategies enhance both the collaborative teacher-student interaction and the opportunities for applying and reinforcing critical thinking abilities in various contexts.

Reading exercises that are organized into pre-reading, while-reading, and post-reading stages demonstrate a comprehensive approach to comprehension and provide diverse chances for improving skills. Prior to reading, one might employ pre-reading methods such as making predictions about the content and questioning initial assumptions. During the reading process, effective strategies may include marking the text, summarizing key points, and posing questions to better understand the material. Post-reading methods typically involve the process of combining information, assessing arguments, and contemplating the reading experience (Caplan & Douglas, 2015).

In summary, CR strategies refer to the precise actions implemented to actively analyse and evaluate texts, serving as the foundation for the enhancement of CR skills. Implementing CR tactics effectively results in the development of CR skills, which are essential for comprehending intricate written content. This, in turn, allows readers to become more perceptive, thoughtful, and involved with texts.

2.4. Challenges encountered by students in applying critical reading strategies

Acquiring Critical Reading (CR) abilities is crucial for achieving academic excellence, especially for individuals learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL). Prior research, exemplified by the investigations conducted by Lee (2021) and Wang and Xie (2022), unequivocally shows a direct association between competence in CR (critical reading) and scholastic achievement. Additionally, these studies shed light on the linguistic obstacles encountered by students learning English as a foreign language (EFL), including restricted lexicon and language aptitude. These obstacles can significantly impede students’ capacity to actively participate in, comprehend, and critically assess academic materials, therefore impacting their ability to deeply understand and evaluate them (Liu, 2017; Pu & Evans, 2019). In addition to linguistic barriers, the literature points to a deficiency in metacognitive strategies as a significant factor affecting students’ comprehension of reading materials (Köse & Günes, 2021; Muhid et al., 2020; Razkane et al., 2023; Razkane & Diouny, 2022). The lack of such strategies can impede students’ ability to effectively understand and interpret complex texts, thereby limiting their critical reading capabilities.

Furthermore, cultural and educational contexts play a crucial role in shaping students’ CR skills. In certain cultural settings, a reverence for authority may deter students from engaging in critical analysis and questioning of texts, which are fundamental aspects of CR (Gao, 2019). Additionally, educational practices that prioritize rote memorization over analytical and evaluative thinking can inhibit the cultivation of the critical reasoning skills essential for CR.

Although the issues mentioned in the literature are well-documented, there is still a lack of understanding regarding the specific ways in which linguistic competency, cultural norms, and educational practices interact and impact the development of critical reading abilities in particular circumstances, such as among Vietnamese English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. Furthermore, there is a scarcity of research on efficient solutions specifically designed to tackle the complex difficulties encountered by students in Vietnam (Le & Huynh, 2022).

The objective of this study is to address the existing gaps by examining the particular challenges faced by English major students at a Vietnamese institution when implementing CR strategies. The research aims to not only identify issues, but also to investigate the underlying elements that contribute to these difficulties and how they interact within the Vietnamese educational framework. By focusing on the unique Vietnamese context and offering actionable recommendations, this research extends the discourse on enhancing CR skills in EFL settings, making a significant contribution to the field and offering practical insights for educators and policy-makers aiming to improve CR education for EFL students in Vietnam.

3. Methodology

3.1. Research approach

The study’s methodology was intentionally crafted utilising an explanatory sequential design, which is a mixed-methods technique known for its two-stage procedure (Creswell & Clark, 2017). The selection of this methodology was based on its capacity to offer a thorough comprehension of critical reading (CR) strategies among English major students, by integrating the advantages of both quantitative and qualitative research methods. In the initial stage, quantitative data was gathered through a survey to determine how often individuals utilised CR strategies. This phase focused on the primary research inquiry and provided quantifiable, comprehensive observations. The utilization of the quantitative technique was crucial due to its inherent objectivity and capacity to furnish precise statistical data (Tashakkori et al., 2003). After completing the quantitative phase, the study shifted to qualitative research, utilizing semi-structured interviews. The purpose of this phase was to investigate the intricacies of the difficulties students have when implementing CR techniques. The reason for incorporating a qualitative phase is based on its efficacy in offering comprehensive and situational understanding to the quantitative results, particularly in instances when these findings were unforeseen or demanded additional clarification (Morse, 1991). The use of semi-structured interviews was ideal for this phase because of their adaptable nature and capacity to extract comprehensive and individualized perspectives.

The selection of an explanatory sequential design was motivated by the necessity to comprehensively comprehend both the magnitude of CR method utilization and the intricacies associated with it. This hybrid methodology facilitated a step-by-step investigation, initially building a comprehensive quantitative comprehension, and subsequently delving into a more profound qualitative analysis. The inclusion of qualitative data not only enhanced the dependability of the findings, but also strengthened their robustness by providing contextualization and explanation for the quantitative conclusions. In summary, this approach offered an equitable and thorough understanding of the students’ viewpoints on CR techniques, making a substantial contribution to the field of study.

3.2. Participants and sampling

During the initial phase of this inquiry, participants were chosen from a pool of English major students spanning six cohorts, Batch13 to Batch18 (from the first to final year), at a private institution in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. A total of 156 persons, who had all successfully finished the Critical Reading (CR) course (ECR201), willingly participated in the study during the Fall Semester of 2023. After conducting a thorough data screening process to eliminate incomplete, invalid, or insufficient replies, the sample size was reduced to 147 participants. The final sample size adheres to the standards of survey research design and surpasses the minimum required threshold of 100 participants, hence guaranteeing statistical reliability and validity (Pallant, 2020). To obtain more specific demographic information about the participants, please consult Table 1 in the study.

Table 1. Participants’ demographic information of quantitative phase.

Number of participants	Batch			Major	Grades in CR Course
147		No.	(%)	English Language	CR Score	No.	(%)
	B13	2	1,4		0–4	4	2,7
	B14	2	1,4		5–7	129	87,8
	B15	28	19		8–10	11	7,5
	B16	37	25,2		Others (not remember)	3	2
	B17	51	34,7
	B18	27	18,3

In the qualitative phase, a purposive sampling approach was used to pick 12 individuals (5 females and 7 males at the ages of 18–22) from the initial quantitative sample. The decision was made based on the students’ performance in the CR course, which was divided into three unique performance categories: 0–4, 5–7, and 8–10 grades. The purposive sampling was carefully carried out to select participants who not only successfully completed the CR Course (ECR201) but also expressed their willingness to take part in detailed interviews. The selection of this methodology was intended to encompass a wide range of experiences and perspectives regarding the implementation of CR techniques, thereby guaranteeing a comprehensive and detailed comprehension of the topic. The purposive selection of these 12 participants was strategic, designed to encompass a range of proficiency levels in applying CR strategies within the ECR201 course. This approach allowed for a detailed comparative analysis of how students with varying grades engaged with CR strategies, providing clarity on issues that might have remained ambiguous in the quantitative data. By adopting this sampling technique, the study was positioned to gather qualitative data that was not only relevant but also deeply informative, shedding light on the diverse experiences and perspectives of students with different levels of success in the CR course. This methodological approach significantly contributed to the depth and credibility of the research findings, offering a comprehensive view of the challenges and successes encountered by students in applying CR strategies.

3.3. Research instruments

The initial stage of this study employed a quantitative methodology to thoroughly examine the Critical Reading (CR) procedures employed by English major students, specifically focusing on the main research issue. The researchers devised an extensive questionnaire consisting of 31 meticulously designed questions to evaluate the breadth and strength of the cognitive regulation mechanisms employed by the students. The design of this questionnaire was greatly influenced by the prominent studies conducted by Anuar and Sidhu (2017) and Le and Huynh (2022). Additionally, the questionnaire was improved by include eight additional questions to collect personal information. This supplementary data facilitated the categorization of the participants according to their scores and aided in the organization of subsequent in-depth interviews. The participants’ replies were gathered via a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 'Never’ (1) to 'Always’ (5), in order to maintain consistency in the obtained data.

The questionnaire was constructed using the influential studies of Anuar and Sidhu (2017) and Le and Huynh (2022), which were selected for their substantial contributions to the comprehension of CR techniques in academic settings. Anuar & Sidhu’s research played a crucial role in establishing fundamental cognitive rehabilitation techniques and how they may be applied in educational environments. On the other hand, Huynh & Le provided insights into the flexible implementation of these strategies in different reading situations. The sources were chosen based on their direct pertinence and contribution to the fundamental inquiries of our research, establishing a strong theoretical foundation for the questionnaire used in the present study. The meticulous selection process guaranteed that our questionnaire encompassed a broad range of topics and was based on well-established academic research, hence increasing its pertinence and efficacy for our study.

In order to ascertain the dependability and precision of our data, we carried out a pilot test with 16 individuals who were English majors and had previously finished a CR course. This pilot study, in accordance with the recommendations proposed by Doody and Doody (2015), served as a scaled-down version of the main study, with a comparable sample of participants. During this stage, it was crucial to evaluate the dependability of our questionnaire. This was achieved by computing the Cronbach’s alpha for each part pertaining to instructional design. By utilizing SPSS software, we determined that all sections exhibited alpha coefficients exceeding 0.7, as recommended by Cortina (1993), signifying a considerable degree of dependability in the survey.

In the qualitative segment, a semi-structured interview approach was employed to intricately probe essential components for a comprehensive exploration of the research problem. This methodological choice, grounded in its capacity to elicit reliable and precise information, allowed for adaptability during each interview session. Semi-structured interviews facilitated interactive engagement, enabling nuanced exploration and the opportunity to seek clarification when responses were ambiguous or deviated from the central theme (Mackey & Gass, 2015). The interview protocol consisted of two primary sections. The initial section focused on soliciting background information from participants, contributing to a foundational understanding of their contextual backgrounds. Subsequently, the second segment entailed inquiries regarding the frequency of utilization of various critical reading (CR) strategies, both most and least employed by the interviewees, alongside an investigation into the challenges encountered in the application of critical reading strategies in their CR course.

3.4. Data collection procedures

3.4.1. Quantitative data collection

During the quantitative phase of this investigation, a well-crafted online survey was implemented using Google Forms. The survey items received thorough scrutiny and refinement to ensure their comprehensiveness and clarity. Faculty members were granted authorization through email before the distribution process, enabling the effective dissemination of the survey to students in English major classes. Data collection took place over a two-week period in the Autumn Semester of 2023, resulting in 147 valid responses out of a total of 156. This response total came after filtering out surveys that were either incomplete or filled out incorrectly, ensuring the reliability of the data gathered.

3.4.2. Qualitative data collection

Throughout the qualitative phase of the study, participants were interviewed to acquire more profound insights. The interviews, with an average duration of 25 minutes, were conducted utilizing a blend of Google Meet and in-person encounters, depending on the convenience and preference of the participants. The flexibility in the interview style facilitated the accommodation of the participants’ schedules, so ensuring a better level of involvement. The interviews were conducted in Vietnamese, the participants’ mother tongue, to enhance communication and expressiveness. Before each interview, participants were contacted via email to schedule the meeting times, and explicit consent for recording the interviews was sought at the beginning of these sessions. The interviews were thereafter transcribed and translated into English to ensure the accuracy of capturing the participants’ responses for analysis. After each interview, a follow-up email was sent to the participants to express gratitude for their assistance to the study. This action contributed to cultivating a favorable encounter for the participants and preserving a harmonious relationship. During the interview procedure, researchers utilized an active listening strategy, intermittently posing clarifying inquiries to encourage additional elaboration on the participants’ questionnaire responses, emotions, and encounters. The interactive and engaged method utilized during the interviews ensured a full gathering of qualitative data, which complemented the quantitative data obtained from the survey. This contributed to a thorough analysis of the research objectives.

This study adheres to rigorous ethical principles throughout the data collection process (Arifin, 2018). Permission was sought from participants, who were fully informed about research objectives, provided with informed consent forms and interview questions in both Vietnamese and English. To safeguard confidentiality, participant names, personal information, and identities remained anonymous throughout the research. Reference materials adhered to copyright laws, data-sharing policies, and university ethics guidelines. These ethical standards aim to maintain participant trust and bolster research credibility.

3.5. Data analysis procedures

3.5.1. Quantitative data analysis procedures

Following the collection of quantitative data from the questionnaire, the research team engaged in a meticulous data cleansing procedure to address any discrepancies or inaccuracies in the responses, so confirming the data’s dependability for analysis. The team performed an intricate statistical study using sophisticated software tools such as Excel and SPSS. Descriptive statistics were used to analyse the frequency of using critical reading strategies of English major students. Key metrics such as mean, median, mode, and standard deviation were used to determine the dataset’s central tendencies and variability, providing insights into broad trends and patterns.

Additionally, the team utilised inferential statistics to reveal connections between variables and evaluate the influence of various factors on critical reading habits. The study employed correlation analysis to investigate the connections between different reading techniques and academic achievement, while regression analysis was utilised to forecast the impact of certain variables on critical reading efficacy. The findings were succinctly summarized and conveyed through a diverse range of graphic aids. Tables were employed to synthesize the important statistical findings, facilitating the comprehension of the data. The distribution of reading techniques, correlations between variables, and observed data patterns were effectively illustrated using visual tools such as histograms, scatter plots, and bar charts. This facilitated a clear and thorough understanding of the research conclusions.

3.5.2. Qualitative data analysis procedures

The qualitative data obtained from semi-structured interviews underwent a thorough manual coding process to identify and extract significant themes and subthemes. The process commenced with transcribing the recorded interviews verbatim, with researchers attentively listening to each recording to guarantee the precision of the transcripts. The initial phase was crucial in collecting the subtle distinctions in participants’ responses and establishing the foundation for the future research. During the subsequent stage, the researchers methodically emphasized key terms and main concepts in the transcripts, assigning codes to these noteworthy elements. The coding procedure facilitated the first organization of the data, enabling the detection of patterns and recurring themes.

Expanding upon the encoded data, the researchers proceeded to conduct a more meticulous analysis, consolidating linked codes into bigger groups. This process played a crucial role in the development of important themes and subthemes, offering a well-organized comprehension of the qualitative collection. The analytical framework adhered to the six-step model proposed by Creswell and Creswell (2017). These steps include familiarizing oneself with the data, creating initial codes, identifying overarching themes, reviewing and refining these themes, defining and labelling the themes, and finally, integrating the findings into the final report (as depicted in Figure 2). The implementation of this methodical technique ensured a thorough and methodical examination, facilitating the identification of logical and significant patterns from the collected data.

Figure 2. The six-step model of qualitative analysis.

Source: Adapted from Creswell & Creswell, 2017.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Use of CR strategies

The current research explored the extent to which English-majored students employed CR strategies when dealing with reading comprehension texts.

4.1.1. Quantitative findings

Descriptive analysis of general findings: This section provides an overview of mean scores derived from participants’ responses to the questionnaire, assessing the frequency of utilization of critical reading strategies aligned with Bloom’s Taxonomy. The taxonomy encompasses six levels: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, as proposed by Bloom et al. (1956). The study categorizes these strategies into two cognitive domains, namely lower-order thinking skills (knowledge, comprehension, and application) and higher-order thinking skills (evaluation, analysis, and synthesis), aligning with the classification proposed by Qasrawi and Beni Abdelrahman (2020).

Table 2 presents an analysis of the diverse levels of engagement in reading strategies and activities, wherein Comprehension emerges with the highest mean (M = 3.435), while Application records the lowest (M = 3.285). Specifically, within the Comprehension category, the strategy of describing main ideas in a text exhibits the highest frequency of usage (M = 3.69), while activities such as skimming, scanning complex texts, and extracting specific information demonstrate relatively lower utilization (M = 3.31). In contrast, Application activities manifest the least frequent usage overall (M = 3.285), with predicting article outcomes identified as the least employed skill (M = 2.98). Notably, applying personal experiences to the reading process is relatively more frequently observed (M = 3.52).

Table 2. The mean score of English-major students’ lower-order thinking skills.

No	Items	Mean	SD
	Section 1: Knowledge
1	I am able to identify specific terms (vocabulary) in a text	3.47	0.724
2	I am able to identify complex grammar in a text	3.35	0.816
3	I can identify rhetorical devices (Metaphor, Hyperbole, Personification, etc.)	3.23	0.803
	Overall mean	3.349	0.608
	Section 2: Comprehension
1	I can skim and scan quickly through long and complex texts	3.31	0.905
2	I can describe the main ideas in a text	3.69	0.737
3	I can describe supporting details in a text	3.39	0.864
4	I can derive the meaning of words or sentences from the context	3.52	0.814
5	I can extract specific information from a text	3.31	0.801
6	I can link ideas in a reading text together	3.39	0.716
	Overall mean	3.435	0.535
	Section 3: application
1	I can predict the outcomes of an article	2.98	0.903
2	I can apply existing knowledge to the reading process	3.46	0.796
3	I can apply personal experiences to the reading process	3.52	0.871
4	I can apply the idea in the text to other contexts	3.18	0.808
	Overall mean	3.285	0.611

Table 3 delineates distinct levels of engagement in reading strategies and activities, wherein Analysis stands out with the highest mean (M = 3.508), while Evaluation records the lowest (M = 3.226). Notably, students demonstrated heightened involvement in identifying cause and effect in a text (M = 3.82) and distinguishing facts from opinions (M = 3.73) within the Analysis category. In contrast, Evaluation activities exhibited the least frequent usage overall (M = 3.226), with evaluating answer choices and questioning the author’s assumptions being less common (M = 3.06 and M = 3.01, respectively). Among activities tied to higher-order thinking skills, students displayed enhanced engagement in discerning cause and effect (M = 3.82). Conversely, assessing the appropriateness of references in a text emerged as the least frequently utilized skill (M = 2.98).

Table 3. The mean score of English-major students’ higher-order thinking skills.

No	Items	Mean	SD
Section 4: analysis
1	I can distinguish facts from opinions	3.73	0.832
2	I can make inferences	3.50	0.725
3	I can identify cause and effect in a text	3.82	0.759
4	I can analyze the suitability of references in a text	2.98	0.815
5	I can identify comparison and contrast in a text	3.52	0.874
	Overall mean	3.508	0.559
Section 5: synthesis
1	I can relate the ideas and concepts within a paragraph	3.16	0.741
2	I can relate the ideas and concepts between paragraphs	3.24	0.779
3	I can summarise information after reading a text	3.46	0.846
	Overall mean	3.285	0.621
Section 6: evaluation
1	I can appraise information in a text	3.27	0.871
2	I can make judgments on the arguments or ideas when I read a text	3.28	0.912
3	I can draw conclusion after reading a text	3.50	0.814
4	I first evaluate answer choices before reading a text	3.17	1.030
5	I can recognise the author’s views, attitudes, and intentions in a text	3.34	0.832
6	I am able to discern the organization of a passage	3.18	0.860
7	I can assess the sources of a text and determine the trustworthiness of the sources	3.27	0.960
8	I can evaluate the credibility and quality of the text	3.18	0.922
9	I can question the author’s assumptions	3.01	0.972
10	I can make judgments about how the text is argued	3.06	0.846
	Overall mean	3.226	0.569

In order to provide more in-depth findings in terms of differences in applying CR strategies between male and female student groups as well as between distinction student and below-distinction student groups, the indepent sample t-tests were employed.

As elucidated in Table 4, discernible gender-based distinctions surfaced in the frequency of deploying critical reading strategies. An independent samples t-test underscored that male students exhibit a higher frequency in the application of strategies falling under the Knowledge, Comprehension, and Evaluation categories (p-value: .002; .003; .043 < .05). Particularly noteworthy is the male students’ more frequent engagement in tasks such as identifying specific terms, navigating complex grammar, comprehending rhetorical devices, skimming, scanning intricate texts, articulating main ideas, substantiating details, extracting specific information, connecting ideas, evaluating information, drawing conclusions, and assessing the credibility and quality of the text, notably in the Evaluation categories. Conversely, no statistically significant differences manifested between males and females in the utilization of CR strategies within the realms of Application, Analysis, and Synthesis.

Table 4. Independent sample t-test results of difference in the categories between male and female students.

Independent sample t-test
Section	t	Df	Sig (2-tailed)	Mean Difference	SD	95% Confidence Interval
						Lower	Upper
Knowledge	3.199	145	.002	.314	.098	.120	.508
Comprehension	2.987	145	.003	.259	.086	.087	.430
Application	1.721	145	.087	.173	.101	−.025	.373
Analysis	1.972	145	.051	.181	.092	−.000	.363
Synthesis	.968	145	.335	.100	.103	−.104	.304
Evaluation	2.037	145	.043	.190	.093	.005	.376

4.1.2. Differences in applying critical reading categories between distinction student and below-distinction student groups

In the delineation of this research, individuals falling within the test score range of 0–4 in the Critical Reading (CR) course were categorized as below-distinction students, while those achieving a final exam score between 8 and 10 were designated as high-distinction students.

As evidenced by the findings presented in Table 5, significant discrepancies were unveiled through the independent samples t-test in the frequency of deploying critical reading (CR) strategies between distinction and below-distinction students, particularly within the realms of Comprehension, Application, Synthesis, and Evaluation categories/strategies (p-value: .004; .003; .040; .022 < .05). Distinction students exhibited more consistent utilization of Comprehension strategies, actively engaging in tasks such as skimming, scanning complex texts, articulating main ideas, substantiating details, deriving meaning from words or sentences, extracting specific information, connecting ideas, predicting article outcomes, and applying existing knowledge and personal experiences to other contexts.

Table 5. Independent sample t-test results of difference in the categories between below-distinction and distinction students.

Independent sample t-test
Section	t	Df	Sig (2-tailed)	Mean Difference	SD	95% Confidence Interval
						Lower	Upper
Knowledge	−1.912	13	.078	−.727	.380	−1.548	.094
Comprehension	−3.432	13	.004	−.814	.237	−1.327	−.301
Application	−3.628	12.772	.003	−.886	.244	−1.415	−.357
Analysis	−1.950	13	.073	−.581	.298	−1.226	.062
Synthesis	−2.277	13	.040	−.621	.272	−1.210	−.031
Evaluation	−2.596	13	.022	−.568	.218	−1.040	−.095

Furthermore, high-distinction students demonstrated a higher frequency in employing skills related to synthesizing ideas and concepts, summarizing information, appraising information, drawing conclusions, and evaluating the credibility and quality of the text. However, in the Knowledge and Analysis categories, the independent samples t-test results indicated no significant difference between high-distinction and below-distinction students (p-value: .078; .073 > .05).

4.1.3. Qualitative data insights

Upon analyzing qualitative data, it is evident that students predominantly employ knowledge and comprehension strategies when engaging in critical reading. Knowledge involves the identification of facts, definitions, or concepts from the text, while comprehension pertains to understanding educational messages presented verbally, in writing, or visually. Both knowledge and comprehension align with low-order thinking skills according to Bloom’s Taxonomy (Bloom et al., 1956).

Knowledge: A majority of participants (n = 10) emphasized their frequent use of the first strategy, which involves identifying complex grammar, specific terms, and rhetorical devices. Participants demonstrated confidence in recognizing grammar intricacies due to a solid foundation acquired in high school. For instance, S9 stated, ‘Because I have a foundation about grammar in high school, I am good at identifying complex grammar.’ In addition to grammar, participants exhibited proficiency in identifying specific terms and rhetorical devices, citing recognizable signs and contextual clues. This proficiency was exemplified in statements such as, ‘Realizing specific terms and picking out difficult vocabulary while reading is quite simple for me because it looks a little bit strange…’ (S3) and ‘…grammar is actually not very difficult for me. Regarding rhetorical devices, I occasionally encounter them a few times when reading critical articles…’ (S7).

Comprehension: Similar to knowledge, a substantial number of interviewees (n = 8) expressed a preference for comprehension activities during critical reading. Common activities included skimming, scanning, classifying, illustrating, and linking ideas. Participants found these activities familiar and effective in comprehending the content. As S1, S6, and others attested, ‘Skimming and scanning are the activities I frequently apply in almost all CR texts.’ Participants demonstrated a high level of confidence in applying comprehension activities, equipping them to answer comprehensive questions and interpret facts effectively. For example, S2 stated, ‘I felt confident when using those activities to answer the questions because I found it similar to questions in comprehensive reading I have done before.’ However, the predominant focus on comprehension activities revealed a deviation from the intended purpose of CR courses, which emphasized higher-order thinking skills, including application, evaluation, and analysis.

Upon qualitative analysis, it was evident that the least frequently employed CR strategies are evaluation and synthesis, both of which involve higher-order thinking skills.

Evaluation: Participants (n = 8) indicated infrequent use of evaluation strategies, expressing challenges in discerning the author’s point of view. Limited prior knowledge hindered their ability to differentiate between subjective and objective perspectives in a text. Participants acknowledged the time constraints in reading critical articles, leading to a reliance on the author’s opinion. S12 mentioned, ‘I usually follow the author’s opinion, I completely trust the information the author gives because the amount of time for studying and reading a critical article is short…’

Synthesis: A small number of interviewees (n = 6) acknowledged seldom using summarizing activities, a component of the synthesis section. Difficulties in distilling and synthesizing crucial information posed challenges for these participants. S2 explained, ‘…sometimes the texts have lots of information, it is not easy for me to identify which are the main ideas and supporting details…’ In essence, students, accustomed to learning reading skills in the form of reading comprehension, face challenges when transitioning to higher-order thinking skills, particularly in the realms of evaluation and synthesis, which are frequently overlooked in CR activities.

The study revealed that participants predominantly engaged in lower-order thinking skills, with comprehension being the most commonly employed method. The utilisation of higher-order thinking skills, namely evaluation strategies, was infrequently observed. Students expressed confidence in knowledge and comprehension tasks, but had difficulties in employing evaluation and synthesis techniques, highlighting a deficiency in the utilization of higher-order critical thinking skills. This combination of findings underscores the need for targeted instructional strategies to enhance students’ proficiency in higher-order CR skills, particularly in evaluation and synthesis, within the Vietnamese educational context.

4.2. The difficulties students encounter in the CR course

The study also investigated the obstacles English-majored students encountered in the CR course. Qualitative data analysis revealed four key themes regarding students’ challenges in applying and practicing critical reading (CR) strategies within the CR course.

4.2.1. Insufficient linguistic competency

A predominant challenge, as expressed by the majority of participants, was their limited language proficiency. The academic language of CR texts posed a hurdle to comprehension, hindering their ability to predict authors’ views and attitudes. Many students admitted to resorting to tools such as Google Translate to aid in understanding academic articles, illustrating a reliance on translation due to insufficient English language skills. S3 mentioned that ‘I usually utilize Google Translate when I read to deeply understand the information as well as answering questions or providing my own assessment.’ S10 further stated ‘I do not know many words in English. Google is useful.’ This reliance on translation tools underscored the crucial role language proficiency, particularly vocabulary, plays in facilitating effective CR skills.

4.2.2. Limited comprehension of CR strategies

A significant proportion of students found it challenging to comprehend scholarly texts demanding critical thinking. The difficulties centered around grasping authors’ viewpoints, attitudes, and complex activities related to higher-order thinking. Participants cited a lack of background knowledge, particularly in evaluating authors’ intentions and tones. Synthesis, perceived as demanding ‘deep thought and time-consuming,’ (S9) emerged as a particularly challenging strategy. Limited knowledge about topics and unfamiliarity with the evaluation process were identified as key reasons for the struggle. The findings underscored the need for foundational knowledge and the integration of critical reading strategies in earlier stages of education.

4.2.3. Insufficient instruction from teachers

The majority of participants expressed confusion about teacher instructions, highlighting a lack of detailed guidance on different CR question types. Specific steps for each strategy were deemed essential for effective adaptation to the course. Participants noted a scarcity of teacher corrections for sections beyond ‘key vocabulary,’ leading to uncertainty about the accuracy of information derived from articles. As S4 commented:

‘The teacher only gives general instructions, rarely providing us the specific ways and steps to do each type of question. We don’t know what to do every time we face these kinds of questions.’ … teachers often correct the ‘key vocabulary’ lesson but hardly correct answers of other sections such as ‘check your understanding’

It could be seen that while reading and answering questions dominated the course, activities such as debates and mini-games, recognized as effective for developing critical thinking skills, were notably absent. The findings underscored the importance of integrating diverse and interactive activities to enrich students’ CR learning experience.

The qualitative investigation has revealed notable difficulties that students have while implementing Critical Reading (CR) practices, highlighting the complex nature of these barriers. A significant obstacle in this regard is the students’ limited ability in academic English, which significantly impedes their critical reading abilities. The reliance on translation tools to understand academic materials highlights the crucial connection between language proficiency and cognitive resources, underscoring the need for incorporating language support within cognitive resources programmes to increase students’ interaction with intricate literature. Furthermore, the challenges that students face in comprehending and implementing CR techniques, particularly in tasks that involve combining and assessing information, indicate a lack of fundamental knowledge and experience with CR methodologies. This highlights the need of introducing CR training at an early stage in the educational journey, enabling students to gradually develop the necessary skills for sophisticated critical analysis. The comments pertaining to instructional methodologies underscores the necessity for more explicit and comprehensive advice in CR courses. The students’ ambiguity and inadequate readiness indicate that CR education should be more specific, providing detailed instructions for different CR tasks. Additionally, the emphasis on vocabulary at the expense of other components of critical reading highlights the necessity for a holistic strategy that encompasses all facets of critical reading, ranging from fundamental comprehension to intricate analysis. The lack of interactive and diversified activities in CR learning further constrains students’ cultivation of critical thinking skills. Integrating discussions, interactive activities, and other captivating teaching methods can greatly enhance the critical thinking learning process, resulting in improved effectiveness and enjoyment for students. To effectively tackle the issues in CR education, a complete approach is necessary. This approach should involve enhancing language competence, incorporating CR tactics from the beginning of school, delivering clear and thorough instruction, and diversifying CR activities. This strategy has the potential to revolutionize CR education by enhancing its accessibility and effectiveness for students, while also promoting their development into skilled and self-assured critical readers.

4.3. Discussion

This study demonstrates a clear dependence on Knowledge-based Critical Reading (CR) methods among students, supporting previous research that emphasizes the widespread use of these techniques in critical reading situations (Anuar & Sidhu, 2017; Le & Huynh, 2022). The quantitative data clearly showed a strong involvement in the Knowledge and Comprehension areas of Bloom’s Taxonomy, highlighting an emphasis on fundamental knowledge. Students exhibited proficiency in recognising language, however, their involvement in detecting rhetorical devices was noticeably lower, indicating a deficiency in higher-level cognitive abilities.

The qualitative insights provide additional support to the quantitative findings, particularly highlighting the importance of Knowledge and Comprehension techniques. There appears to be a possible discrepancy between the intended goals of the CR course, which attempt to develop a wide range of cognitive abilities based on Bloom’s Taxonomy, and the actual results, which mostly focus on less complex thinking skills. The qualitative data, obtained through in-depth interviews, reveals that students prioritize fundamental comprehension above participating in more intricate cognitive activities, such as analysis and evaluation.

The alignment between the quantitative and qualitative results indicates a similar trend: children exhibit greater ease and involvement in lower-level thinking abilities, while displaying less comfort with higher-level cognitive processes. This disparity underscores a critical domain for enhancing instruction, particularly in promoting students’ proficiency in analysis, synthesis, and evaluation - fundamental elements of higher-level cognition according to Bloom’s Taxonomy.

In response to these findings, the research proposes various solutions. Improving language skills through focused modules can establish a more solid basis for understanding intricate texts, therefore making it easier to shift to advanced cognitive processes. Engaging students in higher-order thinking processes can be achieved through workshops focusing on rhetorical analysis and critical assessment assignments, such as debates and case studies. These tactics, which are in accordance with Bloom’s Taxonomy, seek to close the disparity between students’ existing skills and the extensive cognitive capabilities that the CR course aims to cultivate.

This research makes a valuable contribution by carefully analyzing the differences in students’ involvement in lower-level and higher-level critical reading techniques. By utilizing Bloom’s Taxonomy as a conceptual framework, the research not only highlights the current deficiencies in critical reading education among Vietnamese students majoring in English, but also suggests specific techniques to improve their ability to critically analyze written material. This study enhances the discussion on CR education by presenting practical insights based on a well-established educational theory, which presents a strategy to improve the effectiveness and comprehensiveness of CR training.

5. Conclusion, limitation and recommendations

This study employed a mixed-methods approach to examine the frequency and challenges of Critical Reading (CR) strategy utilization among English-major students. The findings reveal a significant reliance on lower-order cognitive skills, aligning with Bloom’s Taxonomy’s foundational levels of knowledge and comprehension. This pattern underscores the necessity for CR education to comprehensively encompass both lower and higher-order cognitive skills, including analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, to ensure a well-rounded development of CR abilities. Additionally, the research highlights the pivotal role of linguistic proficiency in CR, suggesting that theoretical frameworks for CR should integrate language skills as a fundamental component, reflecting the interdependency between linguistic capabilities and CR proficiency. To address these findings, it is recommended that educators and curriculum developers design CR courses that emphasize the cultivation of higher-order thinking skills. This can be achieved by incorporating diverse instructional methods, such as debates, case studies, and workshops on rhetorical analysis, which engage students in complex cognitive processes. Tailoring instruction to meet the specific challenges identified in this study could lead to more effective CR education. Furthermore, professional development programs focusing on innovative teaching strategies for enhancing higher-order thinking skills and linguistic competence are crucial for empowering educators to effectively address these challenges. The study acknowledges limitations related to its narrow focus and constraints in the sampling process, which may have impacted the comprehensive examination of factors influencing CR strategy utilization and led to limited recommendations for improving CR education’s overall effectiveness. Future research should aim to address these limitations by exploring a broader range of factors that influence CR strategy use, such as cultural influences, educational backgrounds, and individual learner differences. This could provide a more nuanced understanding of CR skill development’s complexities. Additionally, adopting diverse methodological approaches, including longitudinal studies and experimental designs, could offer deeper insights into CR skill development over time and the effectiveness of specific instructional interventions. To enhance the generalizability of the findings, future studies should consider expanding the sample size and including participants from a variety of educational contexts and backgrounds, facilitating a more representative exploration of CR challenges and strategies across different learner populations.

This research contributes to the theoretical and practical understanding of CR education by highlighting the importance of developing a full spectrum of cognitive skills and the integral role of linguistic proficiency. By offering targeted recommendations and identifying areas for future research, this study provides a foundation for advancing CR education and addressing the challenges faced by English-major students in employing CR strategies effectively.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Ha Van Le

Ha Van Le completed her PhD program in Social Science and Humanities at Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS (UTP), Malaysia. She used to be a graduate research assistant at the Department of Management and Humanities, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia. Currently, she is a researcher and a lecturer at the Foreign Languages Department of FPT University, Vietnam. Her research interests are critical thinking skills, critical reading skills, constructivist approach in teaching and learning English for EFL and ESL students. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6704-7194

Thi Ai Duyen Nguyen

Thi Ai Duyen Nguyen, Dinh Hieu Ngan Le, Phuong Uyen Nguyen, Thi Thien An Nguyen are final year students at FPT University, Ho Chi Minh Campus. Their major is English Language.

Dinh Hieu Ngan Le

Thi Ai Duyen Nguyen, Dinh Hieu Ngan Le, Phuong Uyen Nguyen, Thi Thien An Nguyen are final year students at FPT University, Ho Chi Minh Campus. Their major is English Language.

Phuong Uyen Nguyen

Thi Ai Duyen Nguyen, Dinh Hieu Ngan Le, Phuong Uyen Nguyen, Thi Thien An Nguyen are final year students at FPT University, Ho Chi Minh Campus. Their major is English Language.

Thi Thien An Nguyen

Thi Ai Duyen Nguyen, Dinh Hieu Ngan Le, Phuong Uyen Nguyen, Thi Thien An Nguyen are final year students at FPT University, Ho Chi Minh Campus. Their major is English Language.

Appendix A.

Questionnaire

Part 1: Demographic information

1. What is your name?

2. What is your email?

3. Your phone number:

4. Gender:

5. What is your class?

6. Which batch do you belong to?

   □ Batch 15□ Batch 16 □ Batch 17 □ Batch 18.

7. Your final score of Critical Reading Course

   □ 0-4 □ 5-7 □ 8-10 □ Others.

Part 2: The students’ level of agreement on critical reading (CR) strategies/categories

Q1. Knowledge

 

Table

	Never	Seldom	Sometimes	Often	Always
1. I am able to identify specific terms (vocabulary) in a text.
2. I am able to identify complex grammar in a text.
3. I can identify rhetorical devices (Metaphor, Hyperbole, Personification, etc.)

Q2. Comprehension

 

Table

	Never	Seldom	Sometimes	Often	Always
1. I can skim and scan quickly through long and complex texts.
2. I can describe the main ideas in a text.
3. I can describe supporting details in a text.
4. I can derive the meaning of words, or sentences from the context.
5. I can extract specific information from a text.
6. I can link ideas in a reading text together.

Q3. Application

 

Table

	Never	Seldom	Sometimes	Often	Always
1. I can predict the outcomes of an article.
2. I can apply existing knowledge to the reading process.
3. I can apply personal experiences to the reading process.
4. I can apply the idea in the text to other contexts.

Q4. Analysis

 

Table

	Never	Seldom	Sometimes	Often	Always
1. I can distinguish facts from opinions.
2. I can make inferences.
3. I can identify cause and effect in a text.
4. I can analyse the suitability of references in a text.
5. I can identify comparison and contrast in a text.

Q5. Synthesis

 

Table

	Never	Seldom	Sometimes	Often	Always
1. I can relate the ideas and concepts within a paragraph.
2. I can relate the ideas and concepts between paragraphs.
3. I can summarise information after reading a text.

Q6. Evaluation

 

Table

	Never	Seldom	Sometimes	Often	Always
1. I can appraise information in a text.
2. I can make judgments on the arguments or ideas when I read a text.
3. I can draw conclusion after reading a text.
4. I first evaluate answer choices before reading a text.
5. I can recognise the author’s views, attitudes, and intention in a text.
6. I am able to discern the organisation of a passage.
7. I can assess the sources of a text and determine the trustworthiness of the sources.
8. I can evaluate the credibility and quality of the text.
9. I can question the author’s assumptions.
10. I can make judgements about how the text is argued.

Appendix B.

Interview protocol

Part 1: Basic information of the interviewee

• Could you introduce a little bit about yourself? (Bạn có thể giới thiệu về bản thân được không?)

• For ethical considerations issues, all of your information will be kept confidential and will only be used for the purpose of this research. In order to facilitate the data analysis later, this interview should be recorded. Would you please allow us to record our interview?

Part 2: Main interview questions

• Tell me what CR strategies/activities do you use the most? Why?

• Tell me what CR strategies/activities do you use the least? Why?

• Could you tell me during the CR course, what common strategies/activities your teacher instructs you to use to enhance your CR skills?

• Tell me what difficulties you have encountered in the CR course?