Investigating the impact of home factors on junior high school girls’ academic performance in peri-urban areas: a case study of Dome cluster of schools

Abstract

The study investigated the home factors affecting the academic performances of girl children in the Dome cluster of schools. A descriptive survey methodology was employed in this research. Through a multistage sample technique, 197 respondents were randomly selected. The primary data for the study were collected using a closed-ended questionnaire prepared by the researchers. The findings from the data collection were presented in terms of frequencies, percentages, averages, and standard deviations. The study concluded that the girl child at the Dome cluster of school was involved in household chores, fetching water, household income-generating activities, looking after their siblings and food preparation. The study, also, concluded that parents of students at the Dome cluster of school are of high socioeconomic status and highly involved in their academic work. Also, a girl’s academic performance at the Dome cluster of schools is positively influenced by her home environment factors such as access to educational resource, parental involvement in school events, and her family’s socioeconomic level. However, girl child home activity negatively influenced academic performance. It was recommended that authorities may encourage a balanced distribution of household chores, enhance parental involvement in school events and provide additional support for girls from lower socioeconomic backgrounds.

Keywords:

• Curricula, domestic environment
• girl-child education
• home factors
• school performance
• socio-economic level

Reviewing Editor:

• Arif H Kabir
• School of Education, Deakin University School of Education
• Australia

Subjects:

• Educational Research
• Education Studies
• Philosophy of Education
• Research Methods in Education
• School Psychology
• Sociology of Education
• Childhood
• Curriculum Studies
• Education Policy & Politics
• Educational Psychology

1. Introduction

One of the most effective means of influencing human behavior, fostering good values, and developing abilities and knowledge is education. Nations instill in their citizens through education the goals that will result in the citizens of their choosing for the benefit of greater society (Aswani et al., 2020; Dzever, 2015; Miah, 2012). Azhar et al. (2014) assert that education develops a person’s personality, instils moral principles, broadens their knowledge base, and equips them with skills. Consequently, the main goal of education is to encourage and support everyone’s complete individual self-realization. Thus, education is helpful in the child’s intellectual, moral, social, and spiritual development (Boateng, 2018). Hence, social, economic, and political development of nations is realized when children receive a high-quality education in schools. Hence, education is essential to daily life since without it, a person would not be capable of participating in community activities (Dzever, 2015). Education is also necessary since society and education are intertwined and dependent on one another, as demonstrated by how a child develops and behaves in a particular community (Anthonia, 2019).

Education is the starting point for all human endeavors in the age of globalization and technological progress. It is crucial for building human capital and is associated with a person’s happiness and chances for a better life (Cantwell & Kauppinen, 2014). It guarantees the knowledge and abilities that let people live better lives and be more productive. This rise in productivity creates new revenue streams and boosts a nation’s economic development (Olson, 2022). However, a child’s education and, for that matter, academic success is influenced by his or her background, learning facilities, and socio-cultural factors. Several identified factors that could impact a child’s education include family or home factors, student factors, school factors, and peer factors (Farooq et al., 2011).

Every child is born with a particular level of intelligence and potential, it is important to remember this. Nonetheless, a child’s academic performance is not solely determined by intelligence (Agu & Hamad, 2000). On the other hand, a well-designed environment with sufficient educational resources and a nurturing family environment will assist the development of the child’s intellectual and academic ability. Hence, the achievement gap among learners is due to what goes on in classrooms and at home. Mapigano (2018), therefore, opined that parents and teachers play an essential part in ensuring that each child succeeds academically. Therefore, the school cannot replace the home environment entirely, even though it plays a significant part in building the groundwork for learning; hence what occurs at home is equally significant to what occurs at school (Mapigano, 2018). This is because a child’s academic achievement is linked to the home environment in which he or she grows up. A child’s education starts at home and forms the first impression that could last for the rest of their lives (Anthonia, 2019).

The family is the fundamental social unit and the primary provider of early experiences and stimulation for children (Collins, 2007). So, in terms of education, a parent’s responsibility is one that cannot be disregarded at any point. The family is typically the initial and most significant learning setting. Every young child normally learns language from their parents as well as information, abilities, and behavior (Farooq et al., 2011). This, therefore, sharpens their cognitive ability, school readiness, emotional adjustment and later academic attainment (Mapigano, 2018). A significant number of children’s intellectual development is attributed to the family’s supply of a stimulating home environment (Yeung et al., 2002). Hence, the family can promote or diminish children’s self-worth and academic performance (Anthonia, 2019). More so, the home environment plays a significant role in determining the child’s personality and achievement (Jain et al., 2019). Schools and classmates then begin to have a role in the intellectual socialisation of children as they get begin school; the home, therefore, influences children at the early stages of life when the mind is most receptive (Anthonia, 2019).

In order for a child to develop intelligence and capability, many factors at home, including family income, parents’ educational attainment, occupations, parental participation, marital status, location of the home, and parenting methods, have been identified (Anthonia, 2019; Dzever, 2015). Also, a mother’s attentiveness, discipline style, the environment’s organisation, the availability of learning resources, and opportunities for daily stimulation are crucial variables at home that can impact a child’s education.

Educators, trainers, and researchers have long been interested in examining the home aspects that influence children’s academic performance in order to assure a better education for all. Several studies have therefore shown that causes of children’s academic failure include low socioeconomic background, students’ cognitive capacities, school-related issues, the atmosphere of the home, or the assistance provided by parents and other family members (Fan & Chen, 2001). The psychological impact of a parent’s financial and moral support on a child is said to affect the child’s success in school, according to Dzever (2015). Several studies have also revealed that factors related to children’s family backgrounds may have an impact on their academic success (Bratti & Staffolani, 2013).

Furthermore, Osonwa et al. (2013) discovered that parents’ educational backgrounds, family income, students’ self-motivation, age, and school are all critical elements that influence pupils’ academic progress. According to Chukwudi (2013), parents who have a strong educational background are more likely to encourage their kids to be interested in their schoolwork, which raises student achievement. A favorable home environment is a key predictor of students’ academic achievement, according to Clark et al. (2007). Last but not least, a study by Shah et al. (2012) emphasized the importance of parents understanding their participation in their children’s education to students’ educational journeys.

Various governments have also invested in educational reforms and infrastructure to improve students’ performance at different levels of education. The home environment must be enriching enough to support children’s academic performance despite the government’s efforts to oversee education by developing a positive environment at school (Suleman et al., 2012). To foster children’s cognitive growth, educational materials including textbooks, conducive learning environments, and playthings must be made available to them. Poor parenting, an unfavorable home environment for learning, and a lack of effective teacher-parent communication are all factors in the challenges that kids face in school (Azhar et al., 2014). Thus, these issues could lead to disciplinary actions, school dropouts, truancy, a lack of life skills instruction for handling issues at school, and subpar academic results (Dubow & Ippolito, 2014).

The country’s ability to fulfill the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) of providing education to all children may be hampered if the current trend is not addressed. Particularly in the context of Ghana, the academic debate on the elements at home that have the greatest overall impact on students’ academic ability lacks a clear conclusion. Depending on the methodology and dataset employed, the results of research in the published literature vary. Hence, by attempting to determine the impact of home circumstances on the academic achievement of the girls at Dome Cluster of Schools in the Ga East Municipality of the Greater Accra Region, this study aimed to contribute to the existing literature on factors that affect students’ academic success.

2. Statement of the problem

The fact that a youngster receives an excellent education is not by accident. It results from good instruction and learning, as well as the cooperation of the school, the parents, and the children’s various home situations. Children are motivated to work on projects and learn new knowledge and skills when their learning environment is full of stimulating activities that pique their curiosity and present reasonable hurdles (Jain et al., 2019). Ogbemudia and Aiasa (2013) assert that it is the responsibility of the child’s parents or legal guardians to create a home environment that is conducive to good learning. Regrettably, the motivational forces at home vary quite a little.

Also, in the past, teaching boys took precedence over educating girls. This was because young girls were regularly married off (Okemwa et al., 2010); however, girls must be educated and empowered for the sake of society’s well-being. As a result, educating a single girl child is the same as educating an entire country; hence girls’ education has been regarded as being more important than general education for the growth of a country (Hirst, 2010). It is now well acknowledged that girl-child education yields far higher societal returns than boy-child education (Azhar et al., 2014) because growth is impossible without women’s participation in society. Girl-child education is noted to have a multiplier effect because it empowers women to make a difference and helps to break the poverty cycle. In this dispensation, both boys and girls have equal access to high school education due to government initiatives, policies, interventions, and announcements such as the Millennium Development Goals.

From observation, the current trend is that girls continue to drop out of school despite all the efforts to keep them educated. The dread of having a large family in a household, especially in typical Ghanaian society, is concerning because parents can raise children without understanding the importance of education, especially for the girl child. Most families in our culture, particularly those at Dome, appear to pay insufficient attention to their children’s education, particularly the girl-child. Additionally, in recent years there has been an observed decline in the academic performance of the girl-child at the Basic Education Certificate Education (BECE) at Dome cluster of schools; this research was therefore designed to uncover various home factors of students and their impact on girls’ academic performance at Dome Cluster of Schools as a means to arrest the current situation.

3. Research questions

Based on the aforementioned goals, the following research questions were developed to direct the study.

1. What are the home (environment) factors of the girl child at Dome Cluster of Schools?

2. What is the impact of the home (environment) factors of the girl child at Dome Cluster of Schools on their academic performance?

4. Theoretical underpinning

Many models, ideas, and paradigms exist to explain how humans thrive in their societies. However, methods for achieving outcomes and growth differ widely depending on the individual’s environment, theoretical orientation, and culture (Anfara et al., 2014). Since the purpose of this study is to determine how the home (environment) influences pupils’ academic achievement, it was based on Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory. According to the socio-cultural theory, people now have a more comprehensive grasp of how and what children learn (Hamer, 2005).

The socio-cultural theory claims that children’s thinking and behaviour change over time due to social contact, which varies widely from culture to culture (Woolfolk, 1998). Parents, caregivers, peers, and culture, in accordance with Vygotsky (1978), are responsible for children’s development of higher-order functions. The central theme of Vygotsky (1978) socio-cultural theory is social interaction which means that much of what children learn (in terms of how they think and behave) is from society (Lantolf, 2000). Therefore, children must interact with people around them at home and at school to develop higher-order thinking, problem-solving, creativity, and reasoning skills (Lantolf, 2000). In the construction of knowledge, the theory demonstrates the interconnection of societal and individual processes.

The theory also emphasizes how children’s and adults’ mental operations on their social experiences impact their behaviour and help establish a feeling of self-efficacy. These cognitive processes affect their behavior and foster a sense of self-efficacy (Bong, 2008). It is reasonable to suppose that learning happens in a social context, with the child’s home environment functioning as the child’s initial social context, in accordance with these hypotheses. The theory also holds that humans pick up knowledge from their surroundings, particularly through imitation, observation, and modeling (Bandura, 1977).

Hence, the following are the main points of the socio-cultural theory:

1. Social interactions at home enhance learning.

2. Learning cannot be separated from its social context.

3. Cultural differences affect learning.

This hypothesis implies that the contact between parents and children is crucial in a child’s learning curve. Through this interaction, parents understand what challenges their children have at school. Teachers must also communicate with their students to comprehend their learning difficulties. According to a socio-cultural perspective, learning happens through conversation, negotiation, and collaboration.

Education’s goal is to inspire students to engage in activities, have conversations, and use technologies in a way that is appropriate for the society to which they are being exposed (Lantolf, 2000). A youngster learns a lot from his or her environment as well, including things like watching television at home, parents, siblings, and caregivers. They have a profound effect on the growth of both behavior and cognition. When children witness their parents’ concern for and willingness to assist with their education, they perform better in school (Tucker et al., 2013). According to Mganwa, people (especially youngsters) also have a propensity to learn quickly, whether in a positive or negative way, by imitating what they observe and encounter in society (2010). So, by observing and modeling their parents’ and other family members’ behavior, students can improve their academic achievement. For instance, the educational level of a parent may influence how their children behave and shape them in the same way as their parents. They might make an effort to succeed to the same extent as their parents.

Hence based on the theory, the family environment and school experiences should be linked to facilitate students learning. In that case, it is the duty of the school to design educational opportunities that foster social interaction while taking into account the cultural experiences of a community. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), as described by Vygotsky (1978), distinguishes between actual development as measured by problem-solving on one’s own and potential development as measured by cooperation with more competent peers or problem-solving while under adult supervision. Due to this process, kids get more socialized in the culture that is prevalent, which fosters cognitive development (Olson, 2022).

In summary, the theory was modified to suit the context of the problem statement and the study to a larger extent. It is acknowledged based on the social culture theory that both home and school environment shape the academic performance of a child. However, the theory was modified by holding the school environment impact constants whiles varying the home environment variables due to the context of the problem statement. By holding school factors constant, the researchers more clearly observe the unique influence of the home environment on the academic outcomes of the female students. This strategy allowed the researchers to focus specifically on the contribution of home characteristics, which is the main research interest of the study. The observed school dropout and poor performance of the girl child at Dome Cluster of Schools due to home factors is the rationale for the modification of the theory and it is collaborated by the study of Obeta (2014) on the title ‘Home environmental factors affecting students’ academic performance in Abia State, Nigeria’. Also, Vygotsky (1978) asserted that a child’s upbringing in a particular culture or civilization has a significant impact on their level of intelligence.

5. Methodology

5.1. Research design

In order to examine the home characteristics (home activities, parental involvement in school activities, and parental socioeconomic level) of the girl students at the Dome cluster of schools and their effects on their academic results, a descriptive case study design was used in this study. A descriptive case study approach aims to characterize the natural phenomena that appear in the under-consideration data (Zainal, 2007). This is compatible with the study’s goal.

5.1.1. Population, sample size and sampling technique

In this research, the unit of analysis in this study is the female students of all Junior High Schools (JHS) at Dome Cluster of schools. The study focuses on understanding how various aspects of the home environment, such as home activities, parental involvement in school activities, and parental socioeconomic level, affect the academic performance of these female students. The study aims to examine the home characteristics and their effects on the academic performance of girl students. Therefore, the researchers selected female students as the focus of the study to specifically address the observed school dropout and poor performance of the girl child at Dome Cluster of Schools due to home factors. The target population consisted of female students of all Junior High Schools (JHS) in the Ga East Municipality of the Greater Accra Region. A total of four hundred and two (501) JHS girls constituted the study’s accessible population (Table 1).

Table 1. Population of girls at Dome Cluster of JHS.

School	Population
Dome Anglican 1 & 3 Basic School	160
Dome Anglican 2 Basic School	99
Dome M/A 1 Basic School	120
Dome M/A 2 Basic School	122
Total	501

Source: Field Data, 2023.

The study’s sample size, which was drawn from the accessible population, included 197 female students as respondents. The JHS class lists were used in the sample procedure because they had all of the student names by class. From the class lists, which made up the accessible population for each JHS, all names of girls were taken (Table 1).

A multistage sampling technique that involved the combination of sampling techniques helps address the sampling needs most efficiently and effectively was used to select the sample (Rahi, 2017). In order to get the sample for this investigation, a combination of stratified and basic random sampling approaches was used. JHS 1, JHS 2, and JHS 3 were the three strata from which the sampled students were drawn (Table 2). To choose students from each stratum, a straightforward random selection procedure was used (Table 2). All female students in the various strata had an equal probability of being chosen for the study because of the straightforward random sampling technique.

Table 2. Sample distribution for the study.

Schools	Level	Accessible population	Sample selected
Dome Anglican 1 & 3 Basic School	JHS 1	51	19
	JHS 2	58	24
	JHS 3	51	19
Dome Anglican 2 Basic School	JHS 1	30	12
	JHS 2	28	10
	JHS 3	41	18
Dome MA 1 Basic School	JHS 1	40	16
	JHS 2	41	17
	JHS 3	39	15
Dome MA 2 Basic School	JHS 1	41	16
	JHS 2	42	16
	JHS 3	39	15
Total		501	197

Source: Field Data, 2023.

5.2. Research instrument

The study’s research questions were answered based on the collection of both primary and secondary data. To achieve the study’s objectives, a researcher designed questionnaire entitled ‘Students Home Environment Questionnaire (SHEQ)’ was employed to collect primary data. The questionnaire was used to solicit girls’ views on their home activities, parents’ involvement in school activities and parents’ socioeconomic status. The poll also asked how these domestic circumstances affected the academic success of girls. With questionnaires, there is higher uniformity, which results in more responses with good compatibility (Krosnick & Presser, 2018). It can also gather a lot of data quickly and in a reasonable length of time, making it a quick approach to get data.

Except for the questions about household activities, which employed a five-item Likert-type scale, the questionnaire’s items were all closed-ended four-item scales. The easiest tool for gauging attitudes and views is a Likert-type questionnaire. Respondents are able to express how much they believe a certain assertion (Krosnick & Presser, 2018). The four-item Likert type was generally selected based on the advice of Taherdoost (2019), who claimed that if an odd number response scale is utilized, there is a significant likelihood that respondents will select replies in the scale’s middle. The SHEQ was divided into three pieces. Section A asked questions about the respondents’ characteristics (biographical information), whereas Section B's three subsections asked questions on the respondents’ girls’ homes and environments. Three subsections in Section C also aimed to uncover the influence of girls’ home (environment) influences on their academic achievement.

5.3. Validity and reliability of the instrument

According to Nardi (2018), the relationship of accuracy between the responses and the reality that the responses were intended to represent is what constitutes validity. According to Almanasreh et al. (2019), a test’s validity determines whether it captures the intended outcomes. Face validity and content validity were investigated for this study. While face validity is based on the researcher’s subjective judgment and indicates what the questionnaire is meant to evaluate, content validity requires evaluating the test’s content (Mohajan, 2017). The instrument was given to the supervisor and two additional experts (lecturers) at the University of Education, Winneba’s College of Distance and e-Learning for review and revisions to ensure face and content validity. The vetted instrument’s revised copies were subsequently accepted as legitimate for use in the study.

To assess the instrument’s dependability, pilot testing was done. This involves testing the data gathering process in advance to find and fix issues before collecting data from the intended audience. Almanasreh et al. (2019) define dependability as a measure’s consistency and repeatability. By utilizing 20 pupils from Dome Anglican 1 Basic School to trial the SHEQ, the dependability of the questionnaire was verified. By calculating the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the questions under the various sections, SPSS Version 27.0 was used to analyze the reliability of the data for the two administered questionnaires (Table 3). Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was calculated from Table 3 to be between 0.72 and 0.78. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of 0.70 or higher are considered credible by Pallant (2020). Hence, the various portions and the instrument were widely regarded as trustworthy for gathering data.

Table 3. Reliability of research instrument.

Sections	Number of items	Cronbach’s alpha
Students’ home environment	19	0.78
Impact of home environment	16	0.72

5.4. Data collection and analysis procedures

The researchers themselves and specially trained assistants collected the data. The administrators of the cluster’s several schools granted permission to the researchers. The researchers then presented the purpose of the study to the headteachers, their assistants, and the instructors and asked for their assistance in conducting the study. The sampled girls were informed of the purpose of the study after selecting the respondents for the study, and their assistance was requested. During their break, the SHEQ was administered to them with the assistance of their class professors. A 100% return rate was achieved for all the items and questionnaires. The study’s approach of collecting data from schools rather than solely from the home environment was due to characteristics of a centralized and accessible location for gathering information from a large number of students. Additionally, schools are often more regulated environments where researchers can manage the data collection process more effectively (Goodman et al., 1991). Also, according to Mauthner (1997), collecting data within a school setting allows researchers to have more control over the data collection process. They can ensure uniformity in the administration of questionnaires and minimize potential biases that might arise from variations in data collection methods across different homes. Furthermore, considering the dependent variable, academic performance, it was prudent to collect data from schools.

The documentary (secondary) data for the study was made up of the respondents’ unprocessed test and continuous assessment scores for the four core disciplines of English, mathematics, integrated science, and social studies. This information, known as ‘Student Academic Performance (SAP),’ was utilized to calculate the pupils’ academic performance. About the prior academic year, the grades were taken from the pupils’ report cards (2021–2022). Hence, the grades that were recorded were those from the first and second semesters for the four topics that were previously mentioned. The assistant headteachers of the schools provided access to the report cards.

Descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviation was employed to the analyse objective one.

Inferential statistics such as the multiple regression analysis was employed to analyse objective two. This was as a result of the aim to estimate the marginal effect of an independent variables (e.g. home factors) on a continuous dependent variable (academic performance). This model allows you to assess the unique contributions of different home factors in predicting students’ performance while controlling for other relevant variables (Erdogdu & Erdogdu, 2015).

The data was entered and analyzed using SPSS version 27 after the questionnaire was sorted and their items were coded.

5.5. Hypothesis testing of the regression analysis

The hypothesis of the regression analysis is presented below. The decision rule of the hypothesis is also given as; $$\begin{array}{c}\mathit{\text{Ho}}:\beta i=0\\ H_A:{\beta }_i\ne 0\end{array}$$

Null hypothesis (H_o): Academic performance is not significantly impacted by the home factors.

Alternative hypothesis (H_A): Academic performance is significantly influenced by home factors.

The alternate hypothesis is rejected if the p-value exceeds the critical value at 1%, 5%, or 10%. If not, we don’t rule out the alternate hypothesis.

5.5.1. Ethical considerations

Particular ethical considerations were addressed because this study involved human subjects and participants in its investigations. These factors had to be taken into account in order to protect participant security and privacy. In order to avoid potential future complications that might have appeared throughout the research process, these issues were identified beforehand. Consent, confidentiality, and data protection were among the important factors that were taken into consideration. Approval was requested from the authorities or participants in the study at the schools.

Bryman (2016) asserts that the researcher must guarantee the confidentiality of the data and sources. The authors also stated that participants’ identities and locations of residence or employment must not be disclosed. Participants’ identities, participant confidentiality, and the data gathered were all maintained in this study. Participants’ identities and homes were not published in the study. Furthermore, no one was required to disclose information that would enable readers of the report to identify the data sources by the SHEQ. In order to prevent mistakes and inaccuracies in their answers, those who took part in the study were given plenty of time to respond to their questions. In exchange for their cooperation, the respondents were promised that the information acquired from them would be kept in the strictest of secrecy.

6. Results and discussion

In order to answer the research questions that were developed to direct the study, the discussion of field data is included in this section.

6.1. Research question one: what are the girl child’s home (environment) factors at dome cluster of schools?

From Table 4, 49 (24.9%) out of the 197 students’ samples were less than 12 years. Additionally, 125 (63.5%) were between 12 and 14 years. The remaining 23 (11.7%) were above 15 years. Concerning whom respondent stays with, the majority, 90 45.7%) stayed with both parents, 51 (25.9%) stayed with only one parent. Also, 29 (14.7%) stayed with a relative, whiles the remaining 13 (19.3%) stayed with a friend. The data revealed that the majority, 99 (50.3%) of parents or guardians, had basic education, 68 parents representing 34.5%, had tertiary education. The minority, 12 (6.1%), had no formal education.

Table 4. Background information of students.

Variables	Categories	Freq (N)	Percentage (%)
Age	Less than 12 years	49	24.9
	12–14 years	125	63.5
	Above 15 years	23	11.7
Who respondent stays with	Both parents	90	45.7
	Single parents	51	25.9
	A brother/sister	14	7.1
	A relative	29	14.7
	A friend	13	4.6
Parent’s educational background	No formal education	12	6.1
	Basic education	99	50.3
	SSSCE/WASSCE	18	9.1
	Tertiary	68	34.5

Source: Field Data, 2023.

From the respondents’ background, it could be inferred that the respondents were all within the range of age expected of a girl to be in JHS in the country. Additionally, most of the respondents sampled for the study lived with at least one of their biological parents. Finally, considering the educational status of parents of the sampled girls, 93.9% has various forms of formal education. This implies that parents who are the first socializing agent would be able to ensure that the girl child has a smooth education. A parent’s role in a child’s life is critical since a parent’s engagement in a child’s life determines that child’s future. Parental engagement is a broad concept that encompasses a variety of actions such as good parenting, assisting with homework, chatting with instructors, attending school functions, and even participating in school governance. Children are more likely to succeed in school and in life when schools and families collaborate to promote learning (Okello, 2023). In order for children to more easily disclose their academic problems to their parents and for parents to better understand their children’s academic difficulties, the relationship between parents and children is important for academic accomplishment.

Table 5 shows the outcomes of the data gathered from students of the Dome cluster of schools on their homes home activities they are involved in and their frequency. Nineteen (9.6%) indicated that they very often are involved in household chores, whiles 80 (40.6%), 55 (27.9%), 24 (12.2%) indicated they often, sometimes, and not often involved in household chores (M = 2.72, SD = 1.11). Concerning students’ involvement in fetching water, a total of 140 (61.0%) girls indicated that they were very often or often involved in the activity at home. Only 47 (23.9%) of the respondents were not fetching water at home (M = 2.47, SD = 1.51). When students were asked if they fetch firewood at home, a large majority (62.4%) out of the 197 participants specified that they were not involved in the activity (M = 3.60, SD = 1.86). Seventy-two (36.5%) and 39 (19.8%) of the respondents indicated that they were very often or often involved in household income-generating activities; however, 82 (41.6%) indicated their lack of involvement in the activity (M = 2.90, SD = 1.83). With respect to students looking after their siblings, 59 (29.9%), 41 (20.8%) and 31 (15.7%) indicated very often, often and sometimes as their responses respectively (M = 2.83, SD = 1.62). A total of 140 (71%) out of 197 respondents indicate they are often involved in food preparation at home (M = 2.64, SD = 1.56). The majority (69.6%) of the participants indicated that they were not involved in taking care of the sick, whiles only 57 (29%) were very often or often involved in taking care of the sick at home (M = 3.86, SD = 1.75).

Table 5. Frequency of respondents’ involvement in-home activities.

	V. O	O	S	N. O	N. A. A
Activities	N(%)	N(%)	N(%)	N(%)	N(%)	M	SD
Household chores	19(9.6)	80(40.6)	55(27.9)	24(12.2)	19(9.6)	2.72	1.11
Fetching water	59(29.9)	81(41.1)	10(5.1)	0(0)	47(23.9)	2.47	1.51
Fetching firewood	62(31.5)	6(3.0)	3(1.5)	3(1.5)	123(62.4)	3.60	1.86
Household income generating activities	72(36.5)	39(19.8)	4(2.0)	0(0)	82(41.6)	2.90	1.83
Looking after siblings	59(29.9)	41(20.8)	31(15.)	6(3.12)	60(30.5)	2.83	1.62
Food preparation	44(22.3)	96(48.7)	0(0)	0(0)	57(28.9)	2.64	1.56
Care for the sick	47(23.9)	10(5.1)	3(1.5)	0(0)	137 (69.5)	3.86	1.75

Source: Field Data, 2023.

Key: V. O = Very Often, O = Often, S = Sometimes, N. O = Not Often, N.A. A = Not At All.

Table 6 indicates students view on the level of involvement of their parents or guardians in their academic work. A total of 160 (81.2%) out of 197 respondents either agreed or strongly agreed that their parents or guardians were committed to monitoring their learning activities; the remaining 26 (18.3%) either disagreed or strongly disagreed with the statement (M = 2.85, SD = 0.63). Also, only 8.1% of the respondents disagreed or strongly disagreed that their parents’ or guardians guided them with their timetable; the majority (91.9%), however, thought otherwise (M = 3.07, SD = 0.53). To the statement ‘my parents or guardians cooperate with teachers to monitor my school progress’, only a girl (0.5%) strongly disagreed, 14 (7.1%) disagreed whiles the majority (92.4%) of the respondents indicated varying levels of agreements (M = 3.05, SD = 0.47). The majority (91.2%) of respondents expressed either an agreement or strong agreement that their parents or guardians feel happy to discuss their academic progress (M = 3.05, SD = 0.46).

Table 6. Views of respondents on their parents’ involvement in their academic work.

	SD	D	A	SA
Items	N(%)	N(%)	N(%)	N(%)	M	SD
Commitment to monitoring learning activities	10(5.1)	26(13.2)	143(72.6)	17(8.6)	2.85	0.63
Guide with timetable	2(1.0)	14(7.1)	146(74.1)	35(17.8)	3.07	0.53
Cooperation with teachers to monitor progress	1(0.5)	14(7.1)	157(79.7)	25(12.7)	3.05	0.47
Discuss academic progress	0(0)	16(8.1)	155(78.7)	26(13.2)	3.05	0.46
Encourage and monitor learning	0(0)	14(7.1)	153(77.7)	30(15.2)	3.08	0.47
Attend PTA meetings	0(0)	10(5.1)	151(76.6)	36(18.3)	3.13	0.47
Go through class notes, tests and examinations	0(0)	10(5.1)	149(75.6)	38(19.3)	3.14	0.47

Source: Field Data, 2023 Mean > 2.50 = agreed.

Key: SD = Strongly Disagree, D = Disagree, A = Agree, SA = Strongly Agree.

Similarly, 183 respondents representing the majority were either in agreement or strong agreement with the assertion that their parents or guardians encouraged and monitored their learning (M = 3.08, SD = 0.47). For the statement ‘my parents or guardians regularly attend PTA meetings at school,’ there was no strong disagreement, but only ten students’ representation 5.1% of respondents who held the disagreement view to the statement, the majority (94.9%) however agreed or strongly agreed to the statement (M = 3.13, SD = 0.47). Similarly, there was no strong disagreement to the statement ‘my parents or guardians go through my class notes, tests and examinations’, 149 (75.6%) and 38(19.3%) agreed and strongly agreed respectively to the statement (M = 3.14, SD = 0.47).

Table 7 presents the views of respondent students at Dome Cluster of school on their parents’ socioeconomic status (SES). From the results total of 29 respondents representing, 14.7% disagreed or strongly disagreed that their parents’ or guardians’ income facilitates their school needs; however, the majority (75.6%) agreed to the statement, and 19 (9.6%) strongly agreed (M = 2.89, SD = 0.62). Again, a total of 197 respondents representing 69.5%, agreed that they had access to basic needs like clothes, food, and shelter at home. Only 33 respondents representing 16.8%, indicated a disagreement and strong disagreement to the statement ‘I have access to basic needs at home (clothes, food & shelter)’ (M = 2.92, SD = 0.65). Concerning the income of parents or guardians been able to buy school requirements, a total of 174 (73.4%) respondents were either in strong agreement or agreement, a minority (26.6%) of the respondents, however, were in disagreement or strong disagreement (M = 3.01, SD = 0.64).

Table 7. Respondents’ views on their parents’ socioeconomic status.

	SD	D	A	SA
Items	N(%)	N(%)	N(%)	N(%)	M	SD
Income facilitates school needs	10(5.1)	19(9.6)	149(75.6)	19(9.6)	2.89	0.62
Access to basic needs at home (clothes, food & shelter)	8(4.1)	25(12.7)	137(69.5)	27(13.7)	2.92	0.65
Income able to buy school requirements	8(4.1)	15(7.6)	141(71.6)	33(16.8)	3.01	0.64
Income meets personal goals	8(4.1)	19(9.6)	139(70.6)	30(15.2)	2.97	0.64
Income supports academic needs	8(4.1)	31(15.7)	134(68.0)	23(11.7)	2.88	0.65

Source: Field Data, 2023; Mean > 2.50 = agreed.

Key: SD = Strongly Disagree, D = Disagree, A = Agree, SA = Strongly Agree.

Furthermore, 139(70.6%) and 30(15.2%) were in agreement and strong agreement respectively, that their parents’ or guardians’ income could meet their personal goals, 8(4.1%) and 31(15.7%) were however in strong disagreement or disagreement (M = 2.97, SD = 0.64). Concerning the statement ‘my parents’ or guardians’ income supports my academic needs, a total of 157 representing 79.7% of respondents were either in the agreement of strong agreement to the statement, only 39 (19.8%) were either in strong disagreement or disagreement (M = 2.88, SD = 0.65).

From the analysis of the response by the respondents to achieve this objective, students of the students were generally involved in household chores, fetching water, household income-generating activities, looking after their siblings and food preparation. There was, however, low involvement in activities such as fetching firewood and caring for the sick. This may be due to the nature of the dome community, which is an urban area, modern electricity and source of LPG supply. Also, the lack of involvement in caring for the sick could be due to the advancement in health care in the urban area, where many medical facilities are readily available.

The results of this study are consistent with those of Cheung et al. (2022), who did a related study and discovered that the females take care of their siblings, tend to the sick, and participate in customary rituals such as festivals. According to a study conducted in Kenya by Jagero et al. (2010), the students’ primary concerns were household duties. Daughters were required to assist their moms heavily before leaving for school, which caused them to arrive late and worn out. Because to these obligations, girls are less likely than boys to achieve success. It was advised that parents should encourage their children to only be given minimal responsibilities while at home because too much work renders children too exhausted to do their schoolwork.

Furthermore, the result analysis indicated that for girls of the Dome cluster of school, their parents or guardians were involved to varying degrees in their academic work at home; their responses show that parents were generally committed to monitoring their girl child’s learning activities, guided them with a schedule at home, worked with teachers to monitor their progress at school, were happy to discuss their academic progress, encouraged their learning, regularly attended PTA meetings, and carefully reviewed their class notes, tests, and examinations.

This indication by respondents indicates that parents are involved in their day-to-day learning which is expected to impact on the academic work. According to Hall (2020) when parents are involved, homework is accomplished, assignments are completed, tests are studied for under a parent’s careful eye. Parental involvement in their children’s elementary school education has a big impact, according to numerous studies. Similar to this, it may be important to consider how parents’ influences may affect a high school student’s academic progress. Parents in what is sometimes referred to as a traditional family setting, typically including a stay-at-home mother, were able to closely monitor their kids’ schoolwork and, as a result, ensure that student performance remained high in areas like engagement, academic achievement, attendance, and attitude toward school to a much greater extent than in today’s non-traditional family (Hall, 2020).

Also, students were generally of the view that they had access to basic needs at home such as clothes, food and shelter. They were also generally believed that their parents ‘or guardians’ income facilitated school needs, buying school requirements, meeting their personal goals, and supporting my academic needs. This finding is an indication that the parents or guardians of girls of the Dome cluster of schools are not living in abject poverty since the basic needs of the girl child are catered for by their parents or guardians.

With these assertions by respondents, the finding is informative to the sense that since students are able to get the support, they are likely to have a successful education. Higher-income parents may have higher aspirations and expectations for their kids’ careers and education, which could affect their commitment to learning, claim Bandhana and Sharma (2010). This is due to the numerous ways in which socioeconomic circumstances can affect learning results. The majority of experts think that students’ low socioeconomic status negatively affects their academic performance since they cannot meet their basic needs, and as a result, they do not perform well academically (Poon, 2020). Also, according to Merritt and Buboltz (2015), a student’s socioeconomic status (SES) is a significant explanatory factor affecting how well they perform in school overall since students with low SES perform less on tests and are more likely to drop out. According to the authors, low socioeconomic status hurts academic achievement because it restricts essential resources and adds to family stress. Hence, the psychosocial stimulation in search family is relatively little to strengthening the intellect (Dzever, 2015).

6.2. Research question two: what is the impact of the home (environment) factors of the girl child at dome cluster of schools on their academic performance?

Table 8 provides an estimation of the results of the multiple regression model of home factors impact on the girl child academic performance. The study was interested in understanding the impact of home factors on the academic performance of female students. This focus on home factors aligns with the researchers’ goal of investigating how aspects of the students’ home environment, such as home activities, parental involvement, and socioeconomic status, influence their academic outcomes. By examining these factors, the researchers aim to uncover potential impact of the home environment on the academic performance of the female students. All the four independent variables impacted academic performance and were determined to be statistically significant namely parental involvement, socioeconomic status, access to educational resources and girl child home activity.

Table 8. Estimation of regression model for impact of home factors on academic performance.

Variables	Coefficients	p value
Parental involvement	+0.125	0.015**
Socioeconomic status	+0.417	0.025**
Access to educational resources	+0.537	0.006***
Girl child home activity	−0.422	0.023**
Constant	+0.005	0.000***
HL test = 0.249 Pseudo R2 = 0.240 Log likelihood = -459.8627; standard error = 0.059 V.I.F = 1.260 Number of observations = 197

*10%, **5%, ***1% significance level, 95% Confidence Interval.

Source: Field Data, 2023.

From Table 8, the results indicate that parental involvement is statistically significant at 5 percent and there is a positive relationship between parental involvement and academic performance. A coefficient of approximately 0.125 shows that a girl child’s academic performance is likely to improve by 0.125 (12.5%) if there is a 1% increase in parent involvement in their education. This finding collaborates with the findings of Hall (2020). They asserted that parental involvement such as rules-setting, learning supervision and monitoring, improved parent-school communication, and high expectations for children education has a positive impact on academic performance. However Thomas et al. (2020), in their study concluded that parents in what is sometimes referred to as a traditional family setting, typically including a stay-at-home mother, were able to closely monitor their kids’ schoolwork and, as a result, ensure that student performance remained high in areas like engagement, academic achievement, attendance, and attitude toward school to a much greater extent than in today’s non-traditional family).

Again, academic performance was positively influenced by socioeconomic status of parent at 5% significant level. A coefficient of 0.417 implies that a 1% increase in the socioeconomic status of parent increases the probability that a girl child’s academic performance will increase by 0.417 (41.7%). Poon (2020), in their study asserted that parental socioeconomic status has a more considerable influence on a student’s academic success and life adjustment. Improved family financial resources linked to parents’ employment and educational attainment are usually associated with improved learning opportunities at home and at school, they added. This supports the findings of this research. Furthermore, Bandhana and Sharma (2010) also asserted that higher-earning parents may have more aspirations and expectations for their kids’ careers and education, which could affect how committed they are to learning. The majority of experts think that parent’s low socioeconomic status negatively affects their wards academic performance since they cannot meet their basic needs, and as a result, they do not perform well academically (Farooq et al., 2011).

Furthermore, at 1% statistically significant level, access to educational resource positively impacts girl child’s academic performance. A coefficient of 0.537 reveals that an increase in access to educational resource will increase academic performance by 0.537 (53.7%). According to a study by Dzever (2015), respondents concurred that students from wealthy households have access to more educational resources, which leads to better academic results. Greater financial resources among the parents increase the motivational support by providing more academic resource for their kids, inspiring them to have high educational expectation which is collaborated by this study’s findings.

Moreover, academic performance is negatively impacted by girl child home activity at 5% statistical significance level. 0.422 coefficient shows that, an increase in the girl child home activities is likely to decrease her academic performance by 0.422 (42.2%). This study’s conclusions support the claims and conclusions made in prior studies (Elofsson & Jartsjö, 2012; Emmanuel, 2015; Ngussa, 2019). Domestic duties among schoolchildren may lead to a lesser priority in their studies and, as a result, poor academic achievement, claim Elofsson and Jartsjö (2012). Likewise, Ngussa (2019) suggests that girls’ academic success is likely to be impacted when they perform household duties. It’s common knowledge that women’s time is primarily spent on household tasks. According to Ngussa’s research (2019), girls’ low performance in secondary schools, particularly in rural areas, is due to the increased pressure placed on them to help out with home activities including fetching water, gathering firewood, assisting with cooking, and caring for the young. These home duties disrupt learning and lower females’ performance (Emmanuel, 2015).

The study employed the Hosmer-Lemeshow test to assess the adequacy of the analysis. This test helps determine the significance of poor predictions, which indicate issues with the model. Conversely, if the poor predictions are not significant, it suggests that the model fits well. The Hosmer-Lemeshow test yielded a P value of 0.249, which was greater than the threshold of 0.050, indicating insignificance. Therefore, the test did not reveal any unexpected deviation between the expected and observed probabilities, confirming that the model fits the dataset. The Hosmer-Lemeshow test for goodness of fit was prioritized over other tests due to its reliability, as it remains unaffected by the data format. Unlike tests such as Pearson and Adjusted R², the Hosmer-Lemeshow test is independent of the number of trials per data row.

The Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) is a measure used to determine how much the behavior (variance) of an independent variable is affected by its interaction and correlation with other independent variables. VIF provides a quick assessment of the impact of a variable on the standard error in regression. According to Salmerón et al. (2020), a VIF of 1 indicates no correlation between variables. VIF values between 1 and 5 indicate moderate correlation, while VIF values greater than 5 indicate high correlation. In this study, the VIF value of 1.260 suggests that the independent variables are moderately correlated. However, this correlation has a negligible or minimal effect on the statistical significance of the independent variables.

7. Conclusions

The study concludes that the girl child at the Dome cluster of school is involved in household chores, fetching water, household income-generating activities, looking after their siblings and food preparation. The study, however, found that parents of students at the Dome cluster of school are of high socioeconomic status and highly involved in their academic work. The study also found that a girl’s academic performance at the Dome cluster of schools is positively influenced by her home environment factors such as access to educational resource, parental involvement in school events, and her family’s socioeconomic level. However, girl child home activity negatively influenced academic performance.

8. Recommendations

From the findings of this study, the following recommendations were made:

1. Given that the study indicates that girl children at the Dome cluster of schools are heavily involved in household chores, it would be beneficial to promote a more equitable distribution of these responsibilities. This could involve raising awareness among parents and community members about the importance of sharing household tasks and ensuring that girls have sufficient time and support for their academic pursuits.

2. The study highlights the positive influence of home environment factors, such as access to educational resources, on girls’ academic performance. Therefore, efforts should be made to enhance access to educational materials, including books, technology, and educational programs, both within the home and at school. This can contribute to creating a conducive learning environment for girls.

3. The study suggests that parental involvement in school events has a positive impact on girls’ academic performance. Schools should actively engage parents and guardians in various school activities, such as parent-teacher meetings, workshops, and extracurricular events. This involvement can foster a supportive educational environment and encourage parents to actively participate in their daughters’ education.

4. The study identifies a negative influence of girl child home activities on academic performance. It is crucial to recognize the importance of balancing household responsibilities with academic pursuits. Strategies should be developed to support girls in managing their time effectively and finding a balance between their responsibilities at home and their educational goals.

5. The study indicates that girls from families with higher socioeconomic status tend to perform better academically. To address this disparity, targeted interventions should be implemented to provide additional support and resources for girls from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. This could include scholarships, mentoring programs, tutoring services, and initiatives to improve access to quality education for all girls in the Dome cluster of schools.

9. Suggestion for further studies

Researchers may further conduct a longitudinal study to examine the long-term effects of home factors on the academic performance of junior high school girls in peri-urban areas. This will involve following a cohort of students over an extended period of time to understand how home factors influence their academic progress throughout their educational journey. Also, researchers may conduct intervention studies to evaluate the effectiveness of specific strategies or programs aimed at improving home factors and subsequently enhancing academic performance. This could involve implementing interventions such as parent-teacher partnerships, mentoring programs, or workshops on effective parenting practices. Evaluating the impact of these interventions will provide practical insights for designing effective interventions in peri-urban areas.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Ronald Osei Mensah

Ronald Osei Mensah is a Lecturer with the Social Development Section, Takoradi Technical University, Takoradi, Ghana and a Ph.D. Candidate with the Department of Sociology and Anthropology, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana. He holds M.Phil. in Sociology from the University of Cape Coast, Ghana, M.A in Public Administration from the Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration (GIMPA), B.A in Sociology from the University of Cape Coast, Ghana and a Post-Graduate Diploma in Education (Social Studies) from the University of Education, Winneba-Ghana. He has cross-cutting research experience in the area of Sociology of Education, Sociology of Law and Criminal Justice, Criminal Justice Education, Penology, Global Crime Studies, Media Studies and African History.

Andrews Acquah

Andrews Acquah is currently an Assistant Research Fellow at the National Centre for Research into Basic Education, University of Education, Winneba. He holds Bachelor of Education (Arts) Degree and a Master of Philosophy degree in Curriculum and Teaching all from the University of Cape Coast, Ghana. He is currently a second year PhD student reading Curriculum and Teaching at the University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana. His research interest cuts across the areas of Teacher Education, Curriculum development, religious education, and Teacher Professional Development.

Daniel Yeboah Mensah

Daniel Yeboah Mensah works at the Office of the Vice-Chancellor (Monitoring and Evaluation Unit) at the University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana. He holds Masters in Public Administration and has research interest in work- and work-related issues that affects health, wellbeing and productivity of employees, youth education and girl-child education.

Appendix A.

Student home environment questionnaire (SHEQ)

Dear Respondent,

We are conducting a study on ‘Investigating the Impact of Home Factors on Girls’ Academic Performance in Peri-Urban Areas: A Case Study of Dome Cluster of Schools’. Against this background, you have been randomly selected to participate in the research by completing the questionnaire. We would be very grateful if you could answer the questionnaire as per instructions at the beginning of each section. You are required to provide the sincerest response in your opinion to each item. Your responses will be kept confidential.

Thank you.

Section A: respondents’ background information

Please help us classify your response by supplying facts about yourself and your opinion on the raised issues by ticking an appropriate box. There is no correct or wrong answer; therefore, no particular response is targeted.

Please respond to each item by ticking (√) the most appropriate response

1. Indicate your age

   1. Less than 12 years           ()

   2. 12–14 years           ()

   3. Above 15 years           ()

2. Who do you stay with?

   1. Both parents           ()

   2. Single parents           ()

   3. A brother/sister           ()

   4. A relative           ()

   5. A friend           ()

3. Indicate by ticking (√) the highest educational background of your parent/guardian

   1. No Formal Education           ()

   2. Basic Education           ()

   3. SSSCE/WASSCE           ()

   4. Tertiary           ()

Section B: students’ home environment

Students’ home activities (HA)

Kindly indicate your involvement in the following home activities by ticking (√).

Table

Activities	Very Often	Often	Sometimes	Not Often	Not at all
I am involved in household chores
I help in fetching water
I help in fetching firewood
I am involved in household income-generating activities
I look after my siblings
I help in food preparation
I care for the sick

Parent involvement (PI)

This section contains items on the Parents Involvement in school activities. Please select your level of agreement or disagreement with the statements pertaining to your parents or guardian.

The scale for all item is below:

1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Agree 4 = Strongly Agree

Table

Statements	SA	A	D	SD
My parent/guardian is committed to monitoring my learning activities
My parents/guardians guide me with a timetable at home
My parents/guardians cooperate with teachers to monitor my school progress
My parents/guardians feel happy to discuss about my academic progress
My parents/guardians encourage and monitor my learning
My parents/guardians regularly attend PTA meetings
My parents/guardians go through my class notes, tests and examinations

Socio-economic status of parents (SES)

This section contains items on the Socio-Economic Status of parents. Please select your level of agreement or disagreement with the statements pertaining to your parents or guardian.

The scale for all item is below:

1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Agree 4 = Strongly Agree

Table

Statements	SA	A	D	SD
My parents’/guardians’ income facilitates my school needs
I have access to basic needs at home (clothes, food & shelter)
My parents’/guardians’ income is able to buy my school requirements
My parents’/guardians’ income can meet my personal goals
My parents’/guardians’ income supports my academic needs

Section C: impact of home environment on academic performance

This section contains the impact of the home environment on your academic performance. Please select your level of agreement or disagreement with each statement pertaining to you.

The scale for all statements is below;

1= Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Agree 4 = Strongly Agree

Impact of home activities on students’ academic performance

Table

Statements	SA	A	D	SD
My involvement in household chores affects my academic work
I feel tired and unable to study after fetching water, hence it affects my studies
My academic performance is affected whenever I involve in fetching firewood
My involvement in household income generating activities affects my academic performance
Looking after my siblings after school affects my performance in school
My involvement in food preparation affects my academic performance
Care for the sick in my family affects my study time and my academic performance

Impact of parent’s involvement on students’ academic performance

Table

Statements	SA	A	D	SD
Parental involvement in children’s learning activities positively influences their performance
Parental supervision and monitoring of student progress influences their performance
A family which set rules for their children in their academic work improves their performance
Increased parent-school communications improve students’ performance
High parental aspirations for their children tend to positively influence students’ levels of performance.

Impact of parents’ socioeconomic status on academic performance

Table

Statements	SA	A	D	SD
Increasing family income is associated with an increase in student achievement
Students who achieve high performance in education at school have parents with a higher occupation status
Better financial resource among the parents enhances the motivational support to their children; thereby encouraging the children to have high aspirations in education
Students from well up families have more learning materials and hence better academic performance