Gifted education in Paraguay: analyses from a learning-resource perspective

Abstract

The objective of this study is to examine the educational experiences of gifted students in Paraguay through the lens of the Actiotope Model of Giftedness, which provides a comprehensive framework for analyzing the interplay between environmental and individual factors in the development of giftedness.In Paraguay, the approach to gifted education is guided by Law No. 5136/2013 on Inclusive Education, which focuses on providing tailored education to students with diverse cognitive abilities. The Ministry of Education and Sciences (MEC) further develops this approach in its Resolution 1188/2023, introducing specific strategies for supporting gifted students. These strategies include Curricular Enrichment, offering enriched learning experiences tailored to individual abilities, interests, and learning styles, and Flexible Promotion, allowing for the advancement of students through education based on their intellectual development and social maturity. Despite these efforts, national evaluations indicate a gap in achieving minimum educational standards, with only 4.4% of students demonstrating outstanding performance. The economic support for gifted education relies heavily on public and private contributions, often placing a significant financial burden on families. Furthermore, cultural misconceptions about giftedness, such as the belief that gifted children will succeed without additional support, and a lack of specialized training for educators pose ongoing challenges. Amidst these limitations, initiatives like educational robotics and participation in international competitions showcase areas where Paraguay’s gifted students excel. However, there is a clear need for a more structured financial approach and comprehensive educational strategies to enhance the support for gifted students.

Keywords:

• Actiotope model of giftedness
• Paraguay
• mathematics education
• talent development

Reviewing editor:

• Sadiq Ismail, United Arab Emirates University, United Arab Emirates

Subjects:

• Education Policy & Politics
• Inclusion and Special Educational Needs
• International & Comparative Education

With the advent of the Paraguay 2030 Plan, which focuses on shifting towards a knowledge-based economy, there has been a significant emphasis on science and technology in the country. This emphasis forms a part of the national strategy to drive the country’s economic growth sustainably. To enhance the development of skilled human resources in these sectors, the government has initiated strategies such as offering scholarships through programs like BECAL, a Paraguayan government scholarship program aimed at fostering the development of highly skilled professionals by providing opportunities to outstanding students to pursue higher education in areas of science and technology, at renowned universities worldwide (becas.gov.py, n.d).

In this evolving landscape, there is also a growing emphasis on inclusive education, positioned as a key element in the political agenda. This approach aims to establish an education system offering diverse options, ensuring every student’s engagement, participation, and learning, without any form of discrimination. Inclusive education represents a paradigm shift. This approach is vital for gifted students, who require unique educational strategies to fully realize their potential. Nevertheless, while policy guidelines advocate for a more open and participatory educational environment, practical experiences highlight several obstacles in implementing these inclusive practices in Paraguay. Overcoming these barriers is essential to foster a learning environment where students, irrespective of their specific needs, can learn together. For these changes to be effective and sustainable, they need to be embraced and supported by the broader community, recognizing that these students are distinct and require tailored support and attention (Lo et al., 2021). This study aims to offer a comprehensive and insightful perspective on gifted education in Paraguay, delving into how environmental and individual factors intertwine within the nation’s unique set of challenges and opportunities for gifted learners. By illuminating these dynamics, the findings could significantly inform educational policies and practices, not only in Paraguay but also in other countries with similar educational contexts, thereby enriching the global discourse on gifted education.

Legal framework of gifted education in Paraguay

Paraguay’s journey in addressing specific educational needs, including giftedness, began with its participation in the Salamanca Declaration (1994), promoting ‘Education for All’. This was further cemented in the country’s legal framework through Law No. 1264/98, the General Education Law, which mandates equal learning opportunities for all, including those with special educational needs or exceptional abilities. However, this law does not detail specific approaches to guarantee the rights of gifted individuals.

Inclusive education: law, decree and resolutions

Bridging the gap between inclusive education and specific strategies for gifted students, further advancements were made with Law No. 5136/13 ‘On Inclusive Education’, established in 2013, aiming to create an inclusive educational model within the regular system. This law emphasizes support for students with specific educational needs, including those with high intellectual abilities. High intellectual abilities are defined in this law as students who demonstrate advanced cognitive capabilities or excel exceptionally in one area. The law suggests that such students should receive specialized support tailored to their individual abilities (Ministerio de Educación y Ciencias - MEC, 2013).

Complementing these laws, Decree No. 2837/14 outlines the implementation of the Inclusive Education Law, with penalties for non-compliance detailed in Resolution No. 01/15 (MEC, 2014). The Organic Charter of the MEC (MEC, 2014), established by Law 5749/17, defines the General Directorate of Inclusive Education’s role in promoting inclusive, quality education (MEC, 2017).

In line with this, the General Directorate of Inclusive Education (DGEI) in Paraguay plays a crucial role in addressing the learning resource needs of gifted students through their collaborative efforts with pedagogical and administrative supervisions to effectively implement inclusive education policies and programs. This collaboration encompasses various key areas. Firstly, the DGEI is involved in providing training and professional development to supervisors, focusing on inclusive practices and adaptive teaching strategies. This is crucial for ensuring that the educational staff is well-equipped to handle diverse learning needs. Secondly, there is a joint effort in policy development and implementation. The DGEI works alongside other departments in the Ministry of Education and Sciences, as well as private organizations, to develop policies that promote an inclusive environment in schools. This policy work is fundamental in creating a framework that supports inclusive education. Thirdly, supervisory bodies play an essential role in monitoring the application of these inclusive education strategies and providing feedback for improvement. This oversight ensures that the policies and practices are effectively meeting the intended goals. Fourthly, the DGEI provides continuous support and advice to schools on inclusive education matters, ensuring adherence to established standards and policies. This ongoing support is crucial for the sustained success of inclusive practices. Lastly, the DGEI assists in coordinating the distribution of necessary resources for inclusive education, such as adapted teaching materials. Access to appropriate resources is a key element in facilitating effective inclusive education (Giménez, 2015).

However, despite these legal frameworks, practical implementation remains a challenge. The guidelines approved by Resolution No. 17267/18 for an inclusive educational system do not specifically address high intellectual abilities, highlighting a gap between legislation and practice. Thus, one of the key challenges is to develop a more comprehensive and inclusive educational system that effectively caters to the diverse needs of all students, including those with high intellectual abilities (MEC, 2018a).

Procedures for students with high intellectual abilities

The focus on specialized strategies for students with high intellectual abilities, as outlined in Resolution 1188/2023, leads us to consider the theoretical framework guiding these approaches. After two years of working in a joint task force with the gifted education community and the Ministry of Education and Sciences, the Minister proclaimed Resolution 1188/2023, which introduced specific measures for the education of students with High Intellectual Abilities. This resolution outlines two main strategies, namely Curricular Enrichment and Flexible Promotion (MEC, 2023).

Curricular enrichment

This strategy involves providing enriched learning experiences by modifying and adapting content and methodology to cater to the abilities, interests, and learning styles of each student. It includes integrating subjects or learning areas not typically found in regular curricula, using more advanced materials, and allowing for the faster progression of learning, as highly capable students often learn more quickly. Activities under curricular enrichment encompass independent research projects, artistic creations, and experiences that foster discovery, creativity, and socio-affective development. These activities are designed to add variety and depth to the standard curriculum without advancing to higher grade content. This approach is considered after other methods like homework adaptations and classroom methodology changes have been tried (MEC, 2023).

Flexible promotion

This involves the advancement of students with high intellectual abilities through their education, either by starting school early or reducing the duration of their schooling. This measure is considered exceptional and only implemented when other strategies have not sufficed. Flexible promotion is tailored to the student’s intellectual development, creativity, motivation, and social and affective maturity. It aims to balance personal and social development without advancing to higher course content prematurely, ensuring continuity in the educational system. This strategy is considered after all curricular enrichment processes have been exhausted and is based on systematic evaluation documents (MEC, 2023).

These strategies in Resolution 1188/2023 aims to create an inclusive and supportive educational environment for students with high intellectual abilities, ensuring they receive the necessary support and opportunities to thrive in their educational journey (MEC, 2023).

Educational and learning capital model: Actiotope model of giftedness

The Educational and Learning Capital Model underscores how varied forms of capital, inherent in individuals, shape their educational achievements and learning outcomes. The Actiotope Model of Giftedness, is a dynamic framework developed by Albert Ziegler that shifts the focus from innate ability to the processes and environments that facilitate the development of giftedness. This model views giftedness as the result of interactions between an individual and their environment, emphasizing the role of personal skills and knowledge (action repertoires), the influence of external resources and opportunities (learning environment), and the importance of goal-setting and feedback (Ziegler & Baker, 2013).

In this context, the Actiotope Model provides valuable insights and guidance regarding resources within contextual actions, involving tools, action repertoires, and the subjective action space. Resources in this model distinguish between endogenous learning resources which are found within the gifted individual, and exogenous learning resources, which are the external resources available at different systemic levels. This model particularly emphasizes the role of social and cultural backgrounds, aiming to unravel the complexities of learning by exploring the dynamic elements influencing a person’s educational path (Ziegler & Baker, 2013; Ziegler & Stoeger, 2017).

The Actiotope Model of Giftedness is particularly effective for analyzing gifted education in Paraguay where educational policies and resources are in a state of development and transformation. This model allows for a nuanced understanding of how environmental factors such as the availability of advanced educational programs, economic constraints, and cultural perceptions of giftedness interact with the individual abilities of gifted students, focusing both on the internal potential of students and the external support mechanisms; a suitable framework for identifying areas for improvement and for crafting tailored educational approaches for gifted learners in countries with educational challenges like Paraguay.

In Paraguay, economic disparities often create barriers to equal educational opportunities like limited access to educational resources, which includes both didactic and infrastructural assets (suitable learning materials at home, quality schools, libraries, museums, etc.). (Ziegler et al., 2023). The limited access to quality educational resources for underprivileged students, illustrate the challenges that gifted students face. For example, disparities in access to advanced learning materials and technologies can significantly impact their educational journey. To bridge these equity gaps, it is essential to provide disadvantaged groups with as many external resources as those who are privileged; and also, to equip them with the necessary skills to effectively use these resources for learning and development (Ziegler et al., 2023).

Current research suggests that understanding diversity in capital can guide effective educational strategies and interventions; by emphasizing the importance of social and cultural capital, the model equips educators to foster more inclusive and culturally attuned learning environments (Ziegler et al., 2023). The resources that facilitate such environments can be categorized into two primary groups: exogenous and endogenous; exogenous factors encompass external elements like educational curricula, materials, and support systems that aid in the growth of gifted students. On the other hand, endogenous factors consist of internal aspects such as motivation, self-discipline, and cognitive skills that shape the educational trajectory (Ziegler et al., 2017).

Balancing external and internal resources is key to crafting education programs tailored for gifted students, laying the groundwork for effective long-term strategies. This balance encourages a thorough assessment of current educational policies and practices. Central considerations include the methods of identifying gifted students, the design of their curriculum, preparation of educators, and the comprehensive support provided (Alfaiz et al., 2022)—especially the breadth and accessibility of learning resources (Ismail et al., 2022). When the specific needs of individual students are matched with the broader educational framework, a detailed view of the state of gifted education in a given nation can be achieved (Frantz & McClarty, 2016).

Paraguay’s Educational and Learning resources

The upcoming analysis, of Paraguay’s gifted education system through the Educational and Learning Capital Model will specifically apply these concepts of resource capital and the Actiotope Model of Giftedness. The focus will be on Paraguay’s gifted education system, examined through the Educational and Learning Capital Model, which encompasses diverse areas of the educational journey, ranging from economic and cultural contexts to attention-driven and goal-focused perspectives. Ziegler’s Actiotope Model of Giftedness serves as the theoretical framework for this study. This model is particularly relevant for analyzing gifted education in Paraguay as it offers a multifaceted view of the environmental and individual components that influence giftedness (Ziegler & Baker, 2013). Applying these factors to the Paraguayan setting, a detailed comparison with other systems can be drawn in the future, utilizing the model as a shared framework. Such a parallel view will accentuate the unique challenges and opportunities in Paraguay’s gifted education, providing a comprehensive outlook that can be instrumental to design future educational interventions. As such, the aim of the present study is to evaluate the gifted education landscape in Paraguay, through the Actiotope Model of Giftedness. The main research question focuses on how these strategies interact with both the endogenous and exogenous learning resources of gifted students in Paraguay.

Discussion

In line with the Law No 5136/2013 ‘On Inclusive Education’, Paraguay affirms that every student should receive an education tailored to their unique capabilities. By this ethos, a student demonstrating notable proficiency across various cognitive domains, whether logical, verbal, creative, or numerical, is classified as 'gifted’ (MEC, 2013).

The Ministry of Education and Science (MEC, 2023) ‘1188/2023 Resolution’, implemented on 7 August 2023, further cements this commitment. This 18 pages document is an evidence-based directive that acknowledges and accentuates the educational needs of gifted students, providing a clear strategy for ensuring that each student, whether their strength lies in logical reasoning or creative expression, gets the requisite support.

Exogenous educational resources

In the Actiotope Model of Giftedness, exogenous learning resources refer to external factors and resources that influence a student’s learning environment and development. These resources are not inherent to the individual but are part of their surrounding environment. We explore economic, cultural, social, and infrastructural educational capital regarding gifted education in Paraguay.

Economic educational capital

In Paraguay, the financial and material support for gifted education operates distinctly from many developed educational infrastructures. There is not a dedicated national budget exclusively for the gifted education sector. Instead, the economic support for this niche emerges from a collective effort spanning the public sector, private organizations, and, significantly, the families.

In Paraguay, the fiscal year 2023 saw the General Budget of the Nation dedicating 10.8% of its total allocation to the education sector (SNIP, 2023). The aforementioned allocation was the lowest proportion in five years and did not reach the commitments made under the Paris Declaration ‘A Global Call to Invest in Education Futures’. This international agreement, signed in November 2021 by Heads of State and Government, including Paraguay, and Ministers of Education from over 40 countries, calls for allocating at least 4–6% of GDP and/or 15–20% of total public spending to education. Paraguay’s allocation of 4.3% of its GDP in 2023 to education resonates with this commitment, sitting slightly above the Latin American average of 4.0% as of 2022 (Observatorio Educativo Ciudadano, 2023). However, while this allocation aligns with international commitments, there is a lack of a dedicated portion for gifted education, leaving the unique needs of gifted students unaddressed.

From specialized training for educators to the development and implementation of advanced learning programs, the limited budget leads to a reliance on families and private organizations to fill the gap, resulting in inconsistent and unequal access to quality gifted education across different socio-economic groups. Parents often assume a critical role in the financial framework for gifted education, taking on costs associated with learning preparation and participation in competitions (MEC, 2019). Approximately 30% of educational institutions benefit from parental financial support, which encompasses maintaining furniture and organizing recreational activities. In 17–20% of schools, parents also assist in constructing new facilities and managing school meal preparation and distribution. Additionally, in 7.4% of institutions, parents occasionally step in to substitute for absent teachers (MEC, 2018b). Parental involvement can sometimes be excessive, leading to situations where service staff are either paid directly by parents or are absent entirely, a trend traceable back to the late 90’s (Gomes, 2000). The proportion of family income spent on education in public schools is substantial, with lower-class families allocating 51% and middle-class families 34% of their income. When such financial contributions exceed 50%, it often results in parents opting to discontinue their children’s education, leading to increased dropout rates (Juntos por la Educación, 2022).

This financial burden reflects broader societal perceptions and cultural attitudes toward gifted education in Paraguay. There is a dual view: on one hand, giftedness is highly valued, especially in areas like sports and STEM; on the other hand, there is a reluctance to invest public funds specifically in gifted education, stemming from a broader cultural belief that exceptional abilities should be self-sufficient. This dichotomy in societal attitudes impacts not just funding but also the overall support and recognition of gifted education, leading to disparities in opportunities available to gifted students across different socio-economic backgrounds (Lobo & Vuyk, 2023); this aspect is further discussed in the following cultural and social educational capital sections.

The net budget of the Ministry of Education and Sciences (MEC) in Paraguay primarily supports various key expenditure components such as salaries and other benefits for personnel, education and training programs, scholarships, provision of school kits, school feeding programs, transfers to educational institutions for operational needs, investment in educational infrastructure, and the acquisition of educational equipment (SNIP, 2023). As a complementary effort the Fund for Excellence in Education and Research (FEEI), funded by payments from Brazil for hydroelectric energy from Itaipú Dam, created the ‘Paraguay Now’ initiative that has contributed to the enhancement of education and research in the country, improving teacher preparation, and fostering early childhood care (FEEI, 2014). A notable part of this effort is the PROCIENCIA program, which has made a substantial impact in research and graduate studies, including in Mathematics Education. However, the absence of dedicated funding for gifted education highlights the need to balance recognition of gifted individuals’ potential with a commitment to equitably supporting their development. This imbalance is further complicated by misconceptions contributing to inconsistent support at the national level.

At the postgraduate level, the ‘Don Carlos Antonio Lopez’ National Postgraduate Scholarship Abroad Program (BECAL) in Paraguay plays a pivotal role in talent development. It offers postgraduate training opportunities abroad for Paraguayan citizens, aiming to boost individual growth and national socioeconomic progress. Utilizing Propensity Score Matching (PSM) methodology to evaluate the program, BECAL's impact has been significant in enhancing research, innovation, and educational achievements of grantees. The program has led to an increase in scientific publications and job improvements, demonstrating a substantial social return. BECAL aligns individual academic pursuits with Paraguay’s developmental needs, connecting scholars with global research networks, thereby contributing to scientific progress and societal advancement in Paraguay (BECAL, 2022). Additionally, the BECAL program has played a crucial role in professional development, awarding 3051 scholarships by late 2023 that ensure effective knowledge transfer when scholarship recipients return (BECAL, 2022).

This budgetary allocation, while growing, is still not enough to fulfill the country’s educational needs. There is a remaining need for a comprehensive approach to significantly upgrade the quality and effectiveness of education in Paraguay in general, and gifted education in particular. This underscores the societal value attached to nurturing the talents, despite the institutional constraints, but while both public and private sectors in Paraguay provide grants and assorted opportunities to bolster education, there are no dedicated foundations or national scholarships tailored for the gifted. Even the financial burden of facilitating curricular adjustments for high ability students often rests with their families or private schools, due to the expectation placed on them to provide advanced tutoring, a role devised as a strategy to meet the distinct educational needs of these students.

According to the Actiotope Model, Paraguay’s mosaic of financial sources, while showcasing the communal dedication to gifted education, also underscores the need for more structured economic provisions to ensure a robust and sustainable gifted education system that can allocate separate budgets for this group. Considering that social contexts, educational settings, and familial environments play a crucial role in supporting gifted students, understanding these elements is a fundamental initial step towards devising new strategies and providing resources for guidance (Gómez Pérez & Valadez Sierra, 2010). By aligning the economic support mechanisms with the principles of the Actiotope Model, Paraguay could enhance its educational system to better cater to the developmental needs of gifted students, ensuring that both environmental and individual factors are optimally configured to nurture giftedness (Ziegler & Baker, 2013).

Cultural educational capital

Paraguay’s understanding and reception of giftedness are marked by a spectrum of misconceptions that reflect its evolving cultural and educational landscape. At one end, there is a prevalent conception that dismisses the notion of exceptional talent, asserting that ‘everyone is gifted.’ At the opposite extreme, myths perpetuate the notion of gifted individuals as achievers and unparalleled in every domain. This latter belief is often reinforced by misconceptions such as the overemphasis on IQ, pegged from 130 onwards, or the attribution of traits not rooted in evidence (Lobo & Vuyk, 2023).

In Paraguay, schools often take a regressive stance, aiming to assimilate these students into the broader, average student population. There is a misguided belief that measures like acceleration could be detrimental, with schools contending they might induce trauma rather than foster intellectual growth and wellbeing (Lobo & Vuyk, 2023). Such hesitations, unfortunately, stem from the first steps of the gifted discourse in Paraguay, compounded by the nation’s broader challenges as a developing, conservative society. There is an undercurrent of preference for uniformity over intellectual exceptionalism, potentially a reflection of deeper socio-political dynamics as analyzed in analogous cultures like Argentina (Irueste, 2017) and Brazil (Wechsler & Fleith, 2017).

Talent recognition, however, finds some light in specific domains. STEM areas—science, technology, engineering, and mathematics—are gaining increased recognition within educational systems. Schools and private academies are responding by establishing dedicated spaces such as laboratories and makerspaces. These facilities are designed to provide hands-on, experiential learning opportunities, allowing students to experiment, create, and innovate. This shift towards STEM acknowledges the critical role these fields play in driving technological advancement and economic growth, and the need to equip students with relevant skills for the future.

Mathematical talent, as celebrated through achievements in competitions like the International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO) and the National Mathematics Olympiad (OMAPA), emerges as a sign of appreciation and validation. Still, this selective validation poses its challenges: the fixation on mathematical genius can eclipse recognition in other areas of giftedness. Meanwhile, sports, especially football, is another domain where talent receives substantial attention. A gifted footballer is often seen as a ticket out of adversity, embodying a family’s aspirations to transcend socio-economic challenges. However, the link between athletic talent and giftedness remains blurred in the public perception, further complicating the broader understanding of what it truly means to be ‘gifted’ in Paraguay. There is a need for research data that provides local and national statistics which are currently unavailable.

To effectively address cultural misconceptions about giftedness, a multifaceted approach is essential, incorporating public awareness campaigns, community engagement, inclusive policy advocacy, and the establishment of support networks. Initiating comprehensive campaigns across social media, public seminars, and community collaborations can educate the public on the realities of giftedness, dispelling prevalent myths and fostering a broader understanding. By scaling current forums and workshops (Aikumby, 2023a), and engaging with parents, students, and community leaders, a dialogue can be created that builds a supportive network for gifted education. This can strengthening advocacy efforts for inclusive policies that recognize the needs of gifted students in various domains (Aikumby, 2023b), as is the formation of networks for parents (FUPAC, 2023) and educators (REDPAC, 2023) to exchange experiences and strategies, ultimately reducing stigma and cultivating a supportive environment for the recognition and development of gifted individuals.

Social educational capital

The advocacy and development of gifted education are deeply affected by societal attitudes, perceptions, and cultural factors. The prevailing one-size-fits-all approach in education contributes to the lack of social support and overlook of the unique needs of gifted students, causing widespread frustration and disengagement, a phenomenon recognized globally (Parliament of Victoria, Education and Training Committee, 2012). Furthermore, misconceptions that gifted students can thrive without additional support, alongside views of elitism, obstruct initiatives aimed at nurturing their talent. These societal challenges are critical barriers to the advancement of gifted education, significantly impacting students’ psychosocial development and growth (Chowdhury, 2016).

In Paraguay, the advancement and endorsement of gifted children are primarily driven by dedicated institutions and specific advocacy groups. Central to these efforts is the Aikumby Center, a private enterprise devoted to the study and support of giftedness and creativity in the nation. Additionally, advocacy groups like the National Network of Professionals in Giftedness (REDPAC) -founded by members of Aikumby- and the Foundation of Parents with Gifted Children (FUPAC) -comprised mostly by parents whose children have been identified as gifted by Aikumby- have played a fundamental role in driving awareness and understanding. Collectively, the endeavors of these entities represent the strengthening of Paraguay’s social educational capital.

Over the past decade, Aikumby has consistently worked towards raising awareness of gifted individuals within Paraguay, culminating in their collaboration (along with REDPAC and FUPAC) with the Ministry of Education and Science (MEC) over the last five years to draft the 1188/2023 Resolution. Among its highlights the Center created the first Talent Map project in collaboration with the MEC, and in partnership with OMAPA (Vuyk et al., 2023). This was an ambitious pilot study that assessed 1,220 students in the Capital and Central Area, across 17 educational institutions, to detect the top 10%, students with the aim of testing identification tools that could be scalable for future research. The results have informed national educational strategies and have been shared at international forums such as the Congress of the World Council for Gifted and Talented Children and the Annual Convention of the National Association for Gifted and Talented Children of the United States.

Beyond policy-making, the center systematically assists numerous families, individuals, and educational institutions, ensuring the identification and subsequent support of gifted students. Furthermore, the center has emphasized capacity building by facilitating the training of professionals in giftedness detection, evaluation, and identification. This initiative has expanded its influence through international collaborations, forming networks with universities from the United States, Spain, Chile, and Australia, and joining global organizations like the World Council for Gifted and Talented Children (Aikumby, 2023c).

Within educational institutions, the responsibility for managing special educational needs typically falls on counselors, psychologists, and technical staff. However, there is a notable absence of formal undergraduate or postgraduate programs, as well as specialized training, aimed at equipping education professionals with knowledge and skills in advanced learning environments. Training initiatives are predominantly undertaken by private schools or are driven by the proactive efforts of individual teachers who independently seek out such professional development opportunities.

In sum, the absence of formal training programs for managing special educational needs in Paraguayan institutions highlights a significant gap in social educational capital. Yet, initiatives by private organizations aiming to bridge this gap resonate with the Actiotope Model’s principle that nurturing giftedness requires a supportive social backdrop with educators skilled in identifying and fostering unique talents (Ziegler & Baker, 2013).

Infrastructural educational capital

Public schools in Paraguay face significant challenges, as they are significantly more disadvantaged compared to the regional average. Most of these institutions lack the minimum infrastructure necessary for their operation, which, according to current regulations, becomes financially unfeasible given the current budget of the education system (MEC, 2022a).

The private sector has several efforts to date, all from different models of support and promotion of giftedness that can be classified as: a well-known school that promotes gifted education within what the law allows (Colegio Santa Elena, 2023), a TV program of the National Council of Science and Technology (CONACYT, 2020) dedicated to highlight talented children (Five Steam TV), a space created by the Scientific Society of Paraguay and sponsored by the U.S. Embassy to promote science and technology education (Benjamin Franklin Science Corner, 2023), the first interactive science museum of Paraguay (MuCi, 2023) that offers regular scientific activities for students of all ages, and the private venture of journalists, researchers, scientists and popularisers to promote science communication and journalism (Ciencias del Sur, 2023).

What the country spends on education is not allocated on an equitable basis to areas of greatest need (Juntos por la Educación, 2023). There is inequity in investments for school infrastructure, as schools in urban areas, with lower poverty levels, tend to receive more funds. Moreover, there is a lack of regular data collection on school infrastructure, which prevents effective monitoring of investment allocation (Woodon, 2015). The only data available is provided by a popular national newspaper called ABC, which created a map to urge the Ministry of Education (MEC) to attend vulnerable schools in urban and rural areas that are in deplorable conditions, with recurrent falling ceilings that leave students to an improvised classroom under the trees. In an effort to provide the precise location of each educational institution under these conditions, ABC created a collaborative map with citizens that provide ongoing evidence (photos, videos and identification data of schools) to date Figure 1.

Figure 1. Map of falling schools. Adapted from “Escuelas Que Se Caen”, 2023, in ABC. Retrieved from https://www.abc.com.py/especiales/escuelas-que-se-caen/.

In Paraguay, 45% of officially managed schools require building interventions, and most of them do not have the necessary infrastructure to serve the school population with disabilities. Between 2013 and 2021, the needs for classrooms and furniture increased by 26% and 104%, respectively (Juntos por la Educación, 2023).

In terms of technology availability, only 20% of the school-age population has access to a computer at home, and 87% lack internet connection, with public school students being the most affected. Despite the fact that 66% of the population uses the Internet for educational purposes, 66% of them do not have a computer (Juntos por la Educación, 2023).

The methodology of ‘micro-planning of educational supply’ seeks to order educational investment in relation to the number of students, teachers and educational institutions. Although oriented towards spending efficiency and community participation, the management of data, provision of funds, tenders and audits has become bureaucratic and slow, discouraging effective collaboration (Juntos por la Educación, 2023).

Since 2012, infrastructure and equipment interventions have been carried out by the Ministry of Education (MEC) in conjunction with departmental and municipal governments. However, the ‘deconcentration’ of infrastructure management presents limitations in the availability of professionals and logistical conditions, affecting the efficiency and agility of the processes in management, which has been evident in the administration of funds and execution of works (Juntos por la Educación, 2023).

In the context of Paraguay, the infrastructural capital supporting gifted education remains relatively nascent but has been showing progressive development. Currently, while not exclusively tailored to the gifted, several schools have shown a supportive and accommodating environment for such students; they are mostly from the private sector and located in the Capital city (MEC, 2022c).

In 2017, the first official gifted program opened at a private school in Asuncion, with individualized education plans for each gifted student encompassing curricular enrichment and differentiation, as at that time acceleration was not yet allowed in Paraguayan laws (Vuyk, 2020). Several programs at this school are geared towards talent development, such as their bilingual inquiry-based learning program with ability grouping (Lobo et al., 2023).

Another bilingual institution offers a tailored curriculum, catering to individualized learning paces. Its distinct approach encompasses material designed for every grade level across five core curriculum subjects, delivered in English. A unique feature of the school is its implementation of the study booth methodology, which they term 'student offices’. These offices are ergonomically designed to provide individual spaces with appropriate lighting, and minimum distractions, ensuring that each student can concentrate on their academic tasks (SOT, 2023)

Two High Performance Education Centers exist in Paraguay. Though the details of its operational modalities and curriculum framework remain somewhat elusive, and do not report services for students of high ability, its stated philosophy is to concentrate on essential learning elements and maintain a democratic approach to education (MEC, 2022c).

Paraguay does not have schools dedicated exclusively to gifted students, neither in the public or private sector but although there’s a scarcity of dedicated infrastructure for gifted students, in the digital world both Aikumby and OMAPA's websites offer tailor-made content for the gifted population and their educational/social/family settings, backed by research and regularly updated. Nonetheless, there’s a distinct absence of libraries specifically geared towards this group and the Aikumby Center remains as the only place where workshops, individual interventions and identification processes are weekly runned specifically for gifted individuals in Paraguay (Aikumby, 2023a).

Educational robotics, a key component of STEM, is increasingly recognized as both a talent development platform for gifted students and as a venue for socialization. Robotics clubs, national competitions, and similar activities not only foster technical skills but also provide an environment where like-minded students can collaborate, form peer relationships, and compete in friendly yet intellectually stimulating settings. These initiatives are crucial for nurturing future innovators and fostering a community among students with shared interests in technology and engineering.

Despite commendable initiatives predominantly from the private sector, true alignment with the Actiotope Model’s comprehensive framework for gifted education requires significant investment from Paraguay in enhancing its educational infrastructure. Critical to this alignment is the provision of facilities that go beyond traditional classrooms, encompassing science laboratories, libraries, and technology centers as essential facilities for catering to the diverse and advanced learning needs of gifted students (Ziegler & Baker, 2013).

Didactic educational capital

In the context of didactic educational capital, which encompasses the content, methods, and teaching strategies employed in education, a disconnect between the theory and policy of gifted education and its practice reflects a critical shortfall. The proficiency and understanding of how to cater to the needs of gifted students in Paraguay is still developing. Gifted education is not officially seen in degree programs for teaching, psychology or related areas. Therefore, professionals do not have enough knowledge and experience to effectively attend to their educational needs.

The primary hub for expertise in gifted education is Aikumby Center for Giftedness and Creativity, which remains the only place where giftedness identification is carried out with a high level of rigor and detail, from an inter-disciplinary and integral approach. Collaborating with the Ministry of Education and Science (in Spanish, Ministerio de Educación y Ciencias, abbreviated MEC), and periodically applying to funds from the National Council of Science and Technology (in Spanish, Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, abbreviated as CONACYT), the Center plays a central role in disseminating knowledge and fostering capacity building in this domain (Aikumby, 2023c).

In regular classroom settings, the adaptation to the specific needs of gifted students is not yet a widespread practice. This is mainly due to limited exposure and training regarding gifted education among mainstream educators. Aikumby has been delivering workshops and training sessions, but these are often constrained to select schools that are more open to such discourses given their targeted focus. The sporadic nature of these training sessions, along with the limited reach, means that a significant proportion of educators remain unaware or under-equipped to address the unique challenges and potentials of gifted students.

As such, students do not always receive adequate services in schools, even with legal provisions such as laws and regulations. When schools deny services to gifted students, they are not utilizing evidence-based didactic strategies known to benefit these learners. Such decisions may stem from a lack of resources, training, or commitment to inclusive education practices. This disconnect impedes the enrichment of didactic capital for gifted students, as it fails to provide them with the advanced learning opportunities that are essential for their intellectual growth and academic progression.

Research into the effective use of classroom time and teachers’ work routines is essential to optimize the teaching and learning process. Cultivating a culture of formative and systematic assessment is crucial for accurately evaluating student learning. Additionally, the correlation between teachers’ educational levels and their proficiency in taught subjects needs examination, as does the effectiveness of incentives for ongoing professional development. Teacher training systems, including entry standards for public and private sector roles, require thorough review and enhancement. Safety within schools and their surrounding environments, particularly in relation to experienced violence, is another critical area of focus. Lastly, understanding and overcoming barriers to parental involvement in school activities is considered vital for ensuring regular student attendance and engagement (MEC, 2019).

Mathematics

The mathematics olympiad model specifically supports the professional development of teachers, recognizing that well-trained educators are essential to identify and adequately support talented students. By identifying and motivating young people with the potential and interest to enter scientific and technological fields, a fundamental bridge to the future is established, contributing to the development of skilled professionals in key areas for scientific progress (Gómez et al., 2018).

To expand the reach of the Olympiad and engage all interested children in Paraguay, two significant projects were initiated by OMAPA; 1) the pilot implementation of the problem-solving method (Polya, 2004) in the native language, particularly Guaraní, in public and subsidized schools in the Paraguarí Department. This initiative resulted in a noteworthy educational innovation, receiving positive feedback from both teachers and students. The use of Paraguayan Guaraní in problem-solving not only captivated Guaraní-speaking students but also showed a favorable response from Spanish-speaking students, despite some reading comprehension challenges. Teachers particularly valued the didactic and pedagogical benefits of this method that enabled the discovery of mathematical talents among Guarani speakers who might have remained unnoticed in a predominantly Spanish-speaking educational context. This initiative increased student motivation and participation, as well as their confidence in expressing themselves in their native language. However, the specific impact of introducing Guarani has not been isolated due to the simultaneous implementation of two major changes: the introduction of Polya’s method and the teaching of mathematics in Guaraní. This overlap makes it challenging to determine the individual effect of each variable. Nonetheless, the project marks a significant stride in inclusive and culturally relevant education (OMAPA, 2018).

Musical talent

Several projects and programs work with musical talent as a way for economic inclusion. he Sonidos de la Tierra Association, established to promote civic values through music, has grown into a comprehensive national program in Paraguay. It offers inclusive education for children and young people, fostering community engagement through the Orquesta Escuela de Vida methodology. This program emphasizes music’s role in developing individual and collective skills for personal and societal growth. The association, which also runs leadership schools, orchestrates national youth orchestra festivals that combine musical performance with community development. Its initiatives extend to environmental campaigns, demonstrating significant community mobilization and engagement in sustainable practices (Sonidos de la Tierra, 2023).

In a landfill in Asunción, a transformative project began amid challenging conditions where school attendance was low, and children were involved in waste collection. An environmental initiative led to the creation of an orchestra with instruments made from recycled materials found in the landfill, aptly named Landfill Harmonic. This project, which started with a small group of children, has grown to involve over two hundred participants, teaching them valuable life skills and offering an alternative educational experience. The orchestra has gained international recognition, symbolizing the potential for environmental challenges to be converted into opportunities for learning, growth, and achievement (Lopez Iñigo, 2015).

The presence of institutions like Aikumby Center contribute in filling the knowledge gap, but broader systemic integration is still needed. Currently, there isn’t a national curriculum specifically for gifted students in Paraguay. While steps are being taken to differentiate instruction and provide specialized resources, there is a notable difference in depth and breadth compared to other countries’ established systems.

Endogenous learning resources

In the Actiotope Model of Giftedness, endogenous learning resources refer to internal resources within an individual that contribute to their learning and development. These resources interact with external factors to shape an individual’s learning experiences and achievements. We explore actional, organismic, telic, and attentional learning capital regarding gifted individuals in Paraguay.

Actional learning capital

While Paraguay’s gifted education programs are not as widespread and are primarily confined to certain forward-thinking schools, its dedication to gifted education is manifesting in tangible successes in the last ten years. We will especially focus on competitions and standardized testing.

Competitions

Competitions are important for actional learning capital because they provide real-world opportunities for students to apply their knowledge and skills. These events challenge students to think critically and creatively, fostering problem-solving abilities.

Mathematics

The National Mathematics Olympiads, scenarios of mathematical challenges for students of different categories, are presented as a unique opportunity for gifted children with mathematical talent in Paraguay. Beyond evaluating the simple accumulation of knowledge, the problems posed seek to explore creativity and the ability to apply this knowledge. Participation in these olympiads is a voluntary choice, open to students enrolled in the formal education system (PNUD, 2021).

This program is developed by OMAPA, whose strategy includes the National Mathematics Olympiad in Paraguay as a central role in furthering the mission of improving mathematical education in the country (PNUD, 2021). The Olympiads itself aims to enhance education and promote social inclusion by improving students’ quality of life and encouraging the study of mathematics by developing teachers’ professional skills and fostering students’ logical thinking, creativity, and pursuit of excellence. Additionally, the Olympiads aim to connect educational institutions with higher scientific bodies and identify talented youth for science and technology fields, reflecting its vital role in advancing education and scientific talent in the country (OMAPA, 2023).

Moreover, the Olympiads promote social inclusion through knowledge dissemination to enhance participant quality of life and overall educational quality. They focus on fostering a lasting interest in mathematics by integrating different educational levels, from basic to secondary education and beyond. The Junior Olympiad targets adolescent students from 6th to 3rd grade and involves five levels of competition, culminating in an award ceremony. The Children’s Olympiad, for 2nd to 6th graders, features four rounds and concludes with a Mathematics Festival that emphasizes enjoyment over competition (OMAPA, 2023).

Outstanding participants in the Youth Olympiad are offered the opportunity to enroll in the Science Initiation Program, which enhances their abilities in the exact sciences and cultivates a passion for scientific research (OMAPA, 2023). Research indicates that schools engaged in the Olympiads for more than three years demonstrate enhanced proficiency in mathematical problem-solving (OMAPA, 2014).

In the field of mathematics, international competitions are a significant platform for students with outstanding skills in this discipline. Students with mathematical talent in Paraguay are selected to participate in one or several competitions.

From 1988 to 2021, Paraguay has consistently participated in international mathematics Olympiads. In the Iberoamerican Olympiad of Mathematics, they secured 1 gold medal. In the International Mathematics Olympiad, they earned 1 silver and 11 bronze medals, along with 28 honorable mentions. The Mathematical Olympiad of the Southern Cone contributed 1 silver, 28 bronze medals, and 25 honorable mentions to their tally. In the Rioplatense Mathematics Olympiad, Paraguayan participants won 1 silver, 4 bronze medals, and 11 honorable mentions. The Cyberspace Mathematical Competition and Pan American Girls Mathematical Olympiad added 4 honorable mentions and 1 bronze medal, respectively. Additionally, they achieved 2 Puerto Rico Cups and 1 Olympic Women medal, further highlighting accomplishments in these international forums (Carmen Sanchez, Academic Coordinator at OMAPA; personal communication, 1 November 2023).

Beyond being a competition, Olympiads offer these students more complex challenges through mathematical problems, stimulating their capacity for logical and creative reasoning.

Participants, selected for their skills in local competitions, face a series of problems that require a high level of mathematical skill for their age. This challenge pushes students to explore mathematical concepts in depth and apply novel methods to arrive at solutions.

In a broader sense, Olympiads provide an environment where students with exceptional math skills can interact and share experiences with their peers. This community of individuals with similar interests provides a valuable space for the exchange of knowledge and the building of meaningful connections.

The recognition gained through successful participation in these competitions not only validates individual skills, but can also open doors to additional opportunities, such as scholarships and advanced academic programs. This pragmatic aspect adds to the broader dimension of the competition, where participants find a continuous stimulus for their academic development. Overall, the Math Olympiads significantly contribute to shaping a new generation of innovative thinkers and skilled problem solvers in Paraguay.

Computer Science

Aguarandu is the Computer Olympiad of OMAPA, an educational and competitive event that brings together children and young people with a passion for computing. The Aguarandu Computer Olympiad is a significant educational event aimed at nurturing young talent in computing. Structured as a competition, it encourages children and young enthusiasts to develop problem-solving and computational thinking skills, working in pairs on various computational tasks. The competition begins with a virtual phase for initial classification, based on the participants’ abilities to solve computational problems, and progresses to more advanced stages (OMAPA, 2014).

In its final phase, the Olympiad is divided into different leagues of increasing complexity, with advanced leagues involving programming tasks, allowing participants to showcase their skills in programming languages and computational thinking, but beyond testing technical abilities, the Aguarandu Olympiad emphasizes logical and creative thinking and is dedicated to inclusive participation, ensuring equal opportunities for a diverse range of talents. Moreover, it aligns with international standards in computational education, incorporating challenges that mirror global practices in informatics (OMAPA, 2014).

Astronomy and astrophysics

The Olimpiada Paraguaya de Astronomía y Astronáutica (OPAA) represents a significant educational and scientific initiative in Paraguay, aiming to foster the study of astronomical and astronautical sciences among young students. Organized by multiple educational and scientific institutions, the OPAA invites students from seventh to ninth grades and first to third years of secondary education to participate in this national competition. The primary purpose of OPAA is to encourage interest and proficiency in astronomical and astronautical sciences among the youth of Paraguay (Quintana, 2016).

The competition structure includes two rounds: an initial online round and a subsequent in-person round in various regions of the country. These rounds involve solving both practical and conceptual problems related to astronomy and astronautics. The top scorers from these rounds are selected to form an Olympic team, which receives intensive training in preparation for participation in the Latin American Olympiad of Astronomy and Astronautics (OLAA). This training includes both theoretical and practical aspects of these sciences, aiming to build a strong foundation in these fields for the participants (Quintana, 2016). Paraguay participated in OLAA for the first time in 2021, obtained 4 bronze medals in 2022, and a gold medal plus two honorable mentions in 2023 (Ciencia del Sur, 2023).

Overall, the OPAA serves as a platform for young students to demonstrate and enhance their skills in astronomy and astronautics. By providing a competitive yet educational environment, the OPAA contributes significantly to the scientific education landscape in Paraguay, encouraging the development of future scientists and researchers in these fields (Quintana, 2016).

Robotics

The FIRST Lego League competition is an established annual event where teams engage in themed challenges using LEGO robotics. Winners advance to global championships, showcasing their skills on an international platform. Recently, the competition expanded to include a scholarship system for public schools, broadening participation across various departments. This initiative supports STEM education, fostering problem-solving and teamwork skills among students (First Lego League Paraguay, 2023).

Chemistry

The Competencia Nacional de Química (CoNaQ) in Paraguay is an academic initiative aimed at enhancing the study and development of chemistry within the nation. It specifically targets secondary education students and is organized by the University National de Asunción’s Centro de Estudiantes de Química, supported by specialized faculty and tutors. The competition, which includes examinations and laboratory tests, is divided into two categories for students from different academic backgrounds. Winners are recognized with medals and schools participate in a national ranking system. This event also serves broader educational objectives, such as improving secondary education quality and fostering connections between secondary and university education levels. Declared of Institutional Interest by the National Council of Science and Technology (CONACYT), CoNaQ exemplifies an integrated approach to promoting scientific inquiry and academic excellence in the field of chemical sciences among young students in Paraguay (CONACYT, 2023).

Biology

The Paraguayan Biology Olympiad, organized by the Faculty of Chemical Sciences and the Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences at the National University of Asuncion, in collaboration with the Benjamin Franklin Science Corner and the Technical Chapter of the Society of Engineering in Medicine and Biology, is an academic event aimed at enhancing the study of biology among secondary students. This event, which promotes values such as solidarity, fairness, and teamwork, involves competitions evaluated by esteemed academics. It seeks not only to recognize young scientific talent but also to encourage the development of future leaders in biology, thereby reinforcing Paraguay’s dedication to advancing science education.

Science awards

The National Youth Science Award ‘Pierre et Marie Curie’ in Paraguay, supported by various national and international bodies including the MEC and CONACYT, aims to promote scientific inquiry among youth and educators. Named after the renowned Nobel laureates, the award encourages the practice of scientific research methodology and the participation in national and potentially international science fairs. Open to high school students across Paraguayan departments, it requires projects to adhere to the scientific method. The submissions are rigorously assessed by a committee of esteemed Paraguayan scientists, fostering the development of the nation’s future scientific leaders (CONACYT, 2023).

Standardized testing

Standardized testing aligns with actional learning capital in as it provides measurable benchmarks for assessing a student’s capabilities and progress. These tests offer a structured way for students to demonstrate their knowledge and skills.

Programme for international student assessment for development (PISA-D)

Paraguay has participated in the PISA for Development (PISA-D) initiative, which is an extension of the OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) specifically designed for middle- and low-income countries. This participation indicates Paraguay’s involvement in international efforts to assess and improve educational outcomes. According to the latest results, in Paraguay, educational challenges identified by national and international assessments encompass a broad range of issues: there’s a need to reconsider the consequences of grade repetition, focusing on its impact on students’ learning, self-esteem, and behavior. Addressing the reduction of student dropout rates involves collaborative efforts with teachers, principals, and families, alongside a deep understanding of the underlying causes (MEC, 2019).

In addition, the National Mathematics Olympiads carried by OMAPA (Multidisciplinary Organisation for Teacher and Student Support) in Paraguay regularly incorporates problems inspired by the PISA assessment into the curriculum, elevating the educational standards to align with global benchmarks, thereby improving classroom skills (OMAPA, 2014).

Trends in International Mathematics and Science study (TIMMS)

Conducted by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement, TIMSS assesses the mathematics and science knowledge of students in the fourth and eighth grades (or equivalent). Conducted every four years, TIMSS aims to provide comparative data that can inform educational policy and practice, helping to improve teaching and learning in these subjects. TIMSS also gathers extensive background information from schools, teachers, and students, providing a comprehensive view of the context in which learning takes place. Although Paraguay has not participated in TIMSS yet, in a large study conducted by OMAPA (Multidisciplinary Organisation for Teacher and Student Support) during the 2013 National Mathematics Olympiads, over 7,000 Paraguayan students from 6th and 9th grades were assessed using items from the TIMSS to assess their mathematical and scientific knowledge, as measured by TIMSS standards. The results indicate that students reaching the second round outperform others, with those from private schools engaged in Olympiads the longest exhibiting the highest performance. About 30% of students and teachers, including principals, expressed high satisfaction levels. Most students were trained at school, but despite institutional support for teachers and students, a notable percentage of principals reported not reaching the Olympiad’s final round. Teachers identified student challenges like lack of motivation and difficulty in concentration. While many teachers received state math training, fewer participated in OMAPA's specialized training, presenting an ongoing challenge. However, access to OMAPA's didactic materials was widespread among participants (OMAPA, 2014).

National System for the Evaluation of the Educational Process

Data from the National System for the Evaluation of the Educational Process (Sistema Nacional de Evaluacion del Proceso Educativo or SNEPE) conducted by the Ministry of Education and Science, indicates that the majority of students do not achieve the minimum standards. These assessments are given to students across the country in third grade, sixth grade, ninth grade, and third year of middle school. In the 2018 evaluation, between 1% and 9% of students scored in Performance Level IV ‘Outstanding’ in Mathematics, Spanish Communication, and Guarani Communication. If 364,179 students were assessed, that is between 3642 (1%) to 32776 (9%) students performing at an outstanding level. In the SNEPE 2015 evaluation, between 6% and 10% of students scored at an outstanding level. This is an average of 4.4% in 2018, versus 7.6% in 2015 (MEC, 2015; MEC, 2018c,b).

Organismic learning capital

In Paraguay, the focus on the holistic well-being of gifted students, including their physical health, is not yet a prominent aspect of gifted education programs. While there’s an emerging acknowledgment of the importance of addressing gifted students’ unique needs, systematic attention to aspects such as diet, sleep habits, or specific learning times remains limited outside of private services.

Many schools in Paraguay implement standard practices tailored for the broader student body, potentially overlooking the distinct requirements of gifted learners. While there’s a societal emphasis on sports achievements like football, the relationship between physical well-being and cognitive peak performance for gifted students remains underexplored in educational contexts. Additionally, there’s a lack of initiatives to adjust school hours to cater to the optimal alertness periods of gifted students. Traditional school hours prevail, and adjustments are only considered when there’s a professional recommendation documented. Similarly, the notion of instituting recovery breaks, crucial for gifted students undergoing intense intellectual immersion, is not a practice in the country’s educational framework (MEC, 2019).

Dietary and sleep needs are only occasionally considered in some privileged educational environments. Although this is an structural issue that concerns the entire student body of the nation, Paraguay is a country that has as one of its main educational problems, among the high rate of functional illiteracy and school dropout, a cross-sectional problem of lack of supply of school meals and the stability of the roofs of schools in rural areas that fall and create accidents (MEC, 2019). Recognizing the role of dietary and sleep needs in cognitive and emotional well-being of all students, and particularly gifted students, is still a far away goal.

Telic learning capital

In exploring the telic learning capital of gifted individuals, particularly those involved in mathematics and research as in the study of Barrios et al. (2020), their motivational systems and value systems reveal a complex interplay of personal principles, aspirations, and concerns. Respect for others emerges as a fundamental principle for half of the participants, with a significant emphasis on family and friends, learning, and the enjoyment of their pursuits. While mathematics and the enrichment program are important, there is a strong inclination towards personal happiness in their activities.

Ambitions are predominantly centered around mathematics and research, with a notable desire to participate in prestigious competitions like the International Mathematics Olympiad, study in fields related to mathematics, and experience new cultures. A compelling aspiration among participants is to effectuate a noticeable change in Paraguay (Barrios et al., 2020).

Professional decision-making poses a significant concern, with a majority worried about choosing unfulfilling careers. A notable proportion does not extensively ponder the future, while others fear underachievement due to procrastination or perceived lack of ability. Their hope hinges on their dedication, problem-solving capabilities, and an eagerness to explore their desires rapidly. Looking into the future, all participants envisioned continued engagement in study and research, preferably in fields related to mathematics. In the long term, while many aspire to continue their academic and professional pursuits, a stable economic situation and family life also emerge as significant goals. The aspiration to excel in mathematics and uplift their country’s reputation is a recurring theme (Barrios et al., 2020).

In a different study with participants in the Young Talents mathematics enrichment program, valuation of goals showed a moderate relationship with several key educational attitudes and behaviors (Vuyk & Barrios, 2023). Firstly, there is a link between how these gifted students value their goals and their attitudes towards teachers. This relationship suggests that when students place high importance on their goals, they may perceive their teachers as more integral to their learning journey. Similarly, the valuation of goals correlates with attitudes towards school. Students who highly value their goals are likely to view their school environment more positively, recognizing it as a means to achieve their aspirations. Additionally, motivation and self-regulation are moderately related to the valuation of goals. This indicates that students who prioritize their goals are often more motivated and exhibit better self-regulation in their learning processes. Their clear goals provide a direction for their motivation, making them more focused and purposeful in their academic efforts. Self-regulation, the ability to manage one’s learning autonomously, is also enhanced as these students are likely to develop strategies and habits that align with their goal-oriented approach to learning.

Plus, the valuation of goals within this advanced mathematics enrichment program is negatively correlated with boredom in general (Vuyk et al., 2023). Students who are more persistent tend to value the program more, likely due to the program’s prestigious nature and their desire to excel within it. These students find peer interactions and collaborative problem-solving highly stimulating, contrasting with the isolation of working alone at home. This heightened engagement within the program environment suggests that students’ motivation and academic self-perception are enhanced by active participation and peer exchange, thereby reducing tendencies toward boredom.

Episodic learning capital

In the framework of episodic learning capital, a study with adolescents in a mathematics enrichment program found that they often encountered a lack of intellectual challenge in their regular school settings (Vuyk et al., 2023). As such, they felt that their abilities were not fully engaged by standard tasks. They reported finding enjoyment and stimulation in subjects that required them to research and apply themselves, whereas routine tasks that lacked complexity tended to bore them. The challenge and engagement level varied by environment, with rural students sometimes overwhelmed by the pace of enrichment programs, while urban students found these programs suitably challenging and enjoyable.

Attentional learning capital

In the context of attentional learning capital among the gifted, students participating in specialized programming exhibit a high degree of time and attention dedicated to learning and talent development. In a study with mathematically talented adolescents, they reported prioritizing productive use of time and showing an aversion to idleness, with a strong focus on activities that enhance their knowledge and skills (Vuyk et al., 2023). They feel that time spent without purpose is wasted, leading to stress. This behavior is indicative of their high motivation and goal-oriented mindset. They prefer activities that contribute to their learning and personal growth, often seeking intellectually stimulating tasks. This approach also reflects their critical view of educational environments that do not align with their efficiency and goal-focused perspectives, as they believe such environments do not maximize learning opportunities.

Conclusion

The Actiotope Model of Giftedness, illustrating the dynamic interplay between the individual (referred to as the actiotope) and their surroundings, offers a valuable framework for comprehending the educational landscape and the cultivation of learning capital in the Paraguayan context.

Within this framework, it is evident that despite the inclusive education mandate by Law No 5136/2013 and the supportive ‘1188/2023 Resolution’ by MEC, which aims for customized education for students’ unique abilities, including the gifted, Paraguay encounters significant obstacles in catering to the multifaceted needs of these students. The absence of a dedicated national budget for gifted education and specialized programs highlights a critical gap; economic support is fragmented, relying on public, private, and familial contributions, with education receiving a smaller portion of the national budget allocated to education compared to global commitments. Moreover, prevailing cultural misconceptions surrounding giftedness, coupled with a notable deficiency in targeted training for educators to address the needs of gifted students, and an educational infrastructure -particularly in public schools- that lags behind, marked by inequities and inadequate facilities, further mire the educational landscape.

Private sector initiatives, while commendable, are not sufficient to cover the broad spectrum of needs. The emphasis on STEM and recognition of talent in areas like mathematics, as seen in Olympiad successes, highlights some progress. However, there is a need for a more structured approach and dedicated resources to nurture and support gifted education comprehensively.

These challenges underscore the urgent need for a cohesive strategy and dedicated resources to bridge the gap in gifted education, ensuring that the potential of every student is acknowledged and nurtured in alignment with Paraguay’s legal framework for inclusive education. The following specific actions can be decisive to overcome current challenges:

Government action

It is imperative to significantly increase the allocation within the national education budget specifically for gifted education, aiming to meet international best practices. Considering the current allocation of the national budget to education hovers around 4% of GDP, with a mere fraction—potentially less than 0.5%—earmarked for gifted education, a considerable enhancement in funding is essential. This increase would not only supplement existing private and family contributions but also address the equity gaps in resource access, ensuring a more uniform distribution across various regions. Furthermore, the allocation of funds towards establishing national standards for the identification and support of gifted students is vital. This step will guarantee that all gifted students, irrespective of their socioeconomic background, receive the educational opportunities they deserve.

Educator training

Initiating mandatory, comprehensive educator training programs focused on the identification and support of gifted students is imperative. These training initiatives must be made widely available across the country and should include provisions for continuous professional development, ensuring educators are equipped with the latest strategies and knowledge in gifted education.

Community engagement

Encouraging a nationwide conversation about the significance of gifted education is vital. This involves uniting communities, educators, and policymakers in a concerted effort to challenge and change cultural misconceptions and to promote understanding and support for gifted education at all levels of society.

Data transparency

Committing to the publication of detailed data on the state of gifted education, including financial support levels and the disparities in meeting educational standards for gifted students, is necessary. Such transparency will provide a basis for informed policy reform and the development of targeted support strategies.

The establishment of gifted education in Paraguay is essential not only for the gifted but for the nation’s future. Addressing the outlined challenges with targeted actions and a commitment to improvement is key. By embracing the Actiotope Model’s principles and focusing on a holistic educational approach, Paraguay can build an educational environment where every student’s potential is recognized and nurtured, ultimately contributing to the enrichment of a broader intellectual and cultural landscape.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Alexandra Vuyk

Alexandra Vuyk, Ph.D., is a Professor of Psychology at Universidad Católica Nuestra Señora de la Asunción, Paraguay, and is Co-Director of the Aikumby Center for Giftedness and Creativity. A pioneering advocate for gifted education in Paraguay, she leads talent development research grants from the Paraguayan National Council for Science and Technology. Her research spans social and emotional development of gifted individuals, creative careers, and related personality traits.

Maureen Montania

Maureen Montania, M.Sc., is a Research Coordinator at Aikumby Center for Giftedness and Creativity, in Paraguay. She holds degrees from Birkbeck University London (M.Sc. in Health and Clinical Psychology Sciences) and Universidad Católica Nuestra Señora de la Asunción, Paraguay (B.Sc., Educational Psychology). She has published and presented internationally on talent development and mental health.

Liz Barrios

Liz Barrios, M.Sc., is Co-Director of Aikumby Center for Giftedness and Creativity, is a Co-Founder of REDPAC, Red de Profesionales en Altas Capacidades - Paraguay. She served as Executive Director of OMAPA, the top mathematical talent search program in Paraguay, and is a researcher in talent development. Liz is an economist, has a M.Sc. in Public Policy, a certificate in Talent Development, and is currently writing her doctoral dissertation in Public Policy on educational provisions for high ability individuals in Paraguay.

Montserrat Lobo

Montserrat Lobo, M.Sc., is the Educational Innovation Coordinator at Aikumby Center for Giftedness and Creativity and Vice-Principal at Colegio Santa Elena. She is a co-creator of the bilingual Advanced Learning Program, which employs inquiry-based learning methods to enhance educational outcomes. She holds an M.Sc. in Education with an emphasis on Quality Educational Management, and a specialization in Educational Innovation. Her research interests include educational innovation, inquiry-based learning, and the development of programs for gifted and creative students.