Context matters: exploring teacher and learner contexts in ICT integration in slum public basic schools in Ghana

Abstract

This study examined the impact of contextual factors on the integration of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in public basic schools located in slums in Ghana. By adopting a positivist worldview and utilizing the TPACK (Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge) framework as a theoretical lens, this research employs a quantitative approach, administering questionnaires to 379 learners and 179 teachers. Through regression analysis, the study uncovers significant relationships between contextual factors and key aspects of ICT integration, namely, teacher ICT beliefs, teacher ICT use, and learner ICT use. The findings highlight the significance of contextual factors, encompassing elements such as school resources, infrastructure, professional development opportunities, community attitudes, and socio-economic realities, in shaping the landscape of ICT integration within these disadvantaged settings. These results challenge the oversimplification of resource provision as the sole driver of successful technology use and emphasize the need for a comprehensive approach that acknowledges the profound influence of context. Consequently, this study concludes that effective integration of ICT in slum schools requires moving beyond generic solutions and embracing strategies tailored to the specific context.

Keywords:

• Contextual factors
• TPACK
• ICT beliefs
• teacher ICT use
• slum public schools

Reviewing Editor:

• Andy Hung, Boise State University, United States

Subjects:

• Teaching & Learning
• Study Skills
• Teachers & Teacher Education
• Primary/Elementary Education

1. Introduction

The education landscape is rapidly evolving, driven by the pervasive influence of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). While technology promises access to a world of knowledge and transformative learning experiences, its integration into educational settings, particularly in underprivileged and marginalised communities, remains fraught with challenges (Kinyanjui, 2014). This is particularly true for slum public basic schools, where limited resources, socio-economic disparities, and complex sociocultural contexts create unique barriers to successful ICT integration (Naliaka & Iravo, 2016).

Moving beyond the simplistic assumption that access to technology alone drives its effective use, this study argues that context matters: understanding the specific environments in which teachers and learners navigate ICT becomes crucial for unlocking its full potential. By shifting the focus from technology to the interplay between internal factors (teacher and learner beliefs, skills, motivations) and external factors (school culture, community attitudes, socio-economic realities), we can develop targeted and context-sensitive approaches to ICT integration that truly benefit students in underserved communities. This article contends that by placing context at the center of the conversation surrounding ICT integration in slum schools, we can move beyond generic solutions and towards holistic, collaborative approaches that bridge the digital divide and ensure equitable access to the transformative potential of technology for all learners, regardless of their background.

Slum public basic schools in Ghana often operate in resource-constrained environments characterized by limited infrastructure, financial constraints, and inadequate access to educational technologies creating a difficult learning environment for both learners and teachers (Ackah & Addy, 2018). By delving into the contexts of teachers and learners in these settings, this research aims to uncover the contextual challenges that influence ICT beliefs and ICT use among teachers and learners, contributing valuable insights to address the persistent educational disparities stemming from socioeconomic conditions. The research aligns with the global commitment to achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4 (Quality Education) and Goal 10 (Reduced Inequalities). The study aims to understand the intricacies of ICT integration in slum schools to contribute to formulating targeted policies and interventions that bridge the digital divide, promoting inclusive and equitable education for all, regardless of the socioeconomic context.

In the Ghanaian context, it is essential to understand the complex relationship between educational policies, school regulations, teacher training programs, and other contextual factors to comprehensively assess the current state and prospects of ICT integration in the education system. Ghana has implemented significant reforms in its educational policies, demonstrating its commitment to adapting to the changing global environment. The country has reviewed the curriculum for basic schools and introduced the Standard-based curriculum, which now includes ICT, specifically Computing, as a subject from Basic three to Basic nine. However, it is crucial to examine the extent to which these policies address the integration of ICT into the curriculum. School regulations provide the framework for operation within educational institutions. Ghavifekr and Rosdy (2015) emphasize the importance of establishing supportive environments that facilitate the effective use of ICT tools in schools. The effectiveness of teacher training programs in equipping educators with the necessary skills and competencies for ICT integration is a critical aspect that needs to be considered (Suárez-Rodríguez et al., 2018). Investigating the current state of teacher training programs in Ghana will provide insights into the readiness of educators to use ICT in their classrooms.

This study is positioned to inform policy formulation at both the national and institutional levels. Shedding light on the contextual factors influencing ICT integration, policymakers could develop targeted strategies that consider the unique challenges faced by slum schools. The study serves as a vital resource for creating evidence-based policies that foster sustainable and equitable technology integration in Ghana’s educational landscape. The exploration of teacher and learner contexts in ICT integration in slum public basic schools contributes to the academic knowledge base in the field of educational research. It provides a deeper understanding of the factors influencing technology adoption in challenging environments, offering a valuable reference for researchers, academics, and practitioners interested in the intersection of technology and education within disadvantaged contexts.

Understanding the specific contextual factors that influence ICT integration could allow policymakers to tailor initiatives to the unique needs and challenges of diverse educational contexts, ultimately fostering more effective and sustainable educational development. Educators in educationally underdeveloped regions could leverage these findings to refine teaching methods and integrate ICT tools in ways that align with the local context. This guidance is crucial for optimizing learning experiences and preparing students for the demands of the digital age. The TPACK framework provides a comprehensive and contextually sensitive perspective for analyzing the integration of ICT in slum public basic schools in Ghana. By considering the complex interplay between technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge, TPACK can guide targeted professional development, foster a deep understanding of the local context, and facilitate student-centered approaches to teaching and learning with technology.

Identifying the specific contextual factors that impact teacher ICT integration, the study would provide a roadmap for adapting and improving teacher training initiatives. This might ensure that educators possess the necessary skills to harness the potential of ICT in their classrooms. The research further contributes valuable insights that could be applied to similar educational contexts in educationally underdeveloped regions. This broader significance positions the study as a valuable resource for shaping future educational practices, policies, and research initiatives globally.

The research is justified by its potential to unravel the complex dynamics surrounding ICT integration in a specific and critical educational context at the level of education considered critical in shaping the future of learners. By focusing on the unique challenges and opportunities presented by slum schools, the research endeavours to contribute meaningfully to the discourse on equitable and inclusive educational practices in the digital age. To examine the relationships between contextual factors in the environments that teachers and learners integrate ICT, and their ICT beliefs and ICT uses, we hypothesize the following:

• H1: Contextual Factors in a teacher’s school and home environment will significantly and positively influence their ICT belief systems.

• H2: Teacher’s ICT Use is significantly influenced by the teacher’s contextual factors.

• H3: Contextual Factors in a learner’s school and home environment will significantly influence their ICT belief systems.

• H4: Learner’s ICT Use is significantly influenced by the learner’s contextual factors.

2. Review of related literature

2.1. Portraits of public schools in slums in the context of Ghana

According to Amoafo (2018), Ghana is reported to have a total of 23 slums, with 11 of them located in the Greater Accra Region. On the other hand, Paller (2015) conducted a study titled ‘Informal Networks and Access to Power to Obtain Housing in Urban Slums in Ghana’ and identified 29 slums in the country. However, the 2022 Voluntary National Review (VNR) report on SDG implementation by the National Development Planning Commission (NDPC) of Ghana, as cited by Donkor (2022), specifically mentions Accra, Kumasi, Tamale, Tema-Ashaiman, and Takoradi as the cities with slums in the country.

Public schools in Ghanaian slums present a complex and multifaceted situation characterized by limited resources, inadequate infrastructure, and intricate socio-economic dynamics. It is crucial to comprehend these contextual nuances when considering the integration of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in these settings. Nkrumah et al. (2023) provide a detailed description of the insufficient classrooms, sanitation facilities, and teaching materials, while Adamtey et al. (2021) emphasize the scarcity of qualified teachers and the limited availability of electricity and internet connectivity. These resource deficiencies have a direct impact on the integration of technology, leading to both logistical and pedagogical challenges.

Furthermore, socio-economic factors further complicate the landscape of ICT use in education. Dogkubong and Acheampong (2013) reveal the prevalence of poverty and low parental involvement, while Jankowska et al. (2011) shed light on cultural attitudes towards technology that can exacerbate the digital divide. These factors influence the access, motivation, and capacity of students and teachers to engage with ICT, requiring interventions that address existing inequalities. Studies such as Ahmed (2015) highlight the significance of teacher training and technology-enhanced content to improve ICT integration. However, these solutions often fail to consider the unique challenges faced by schools in slum areas.

Conducting a contextual study on ICT integration in slum schools is essential for unraveling the complex interplay of factors. It allows us to go beyond the deficit model of resources and examine the intricate relationship between physical limitations, socio-economic realities, and cultural attitudes that shape the use of technology among teachers and learners in these specific contexts. A comprehensive understanding of local realities enables the development of context-specific solutions that can address the unique needs and challenges of schools in slum areas, ultimately ensuring effective and sustainable ICT integration. By exploring the existing contextual factors and their socio-economic roots in ICT integration, research can inform strategies to bridge the technology gap (Bulman & Fairlie, 2016) and ensure equitable access to technology for all students, regardless of their background.

2.2. Teachers’ and learners’ ICT beliefs

The integration of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in education is a global imperative, and understanding the contextual nuances of ICT integration becomes crucial for effective implementation. Studies emphasize the importance of access to ICT resources as a foundational element for integration. The literature consistently underscores the significance of access to ICT resources as a foundational element for successful integration. In slum schools, the scarcity of resources can exacerbate existing educational disparities. Research by Cheng et al. (2015) highlights that inadequate access to technology remains a significant barrier in many educational contexts, particularly in marginalized settings. The limited availability and quality of ICT tools in slum schools could hinder the potential benefits of technology integration.

Teacher beliefs and attitudes significantly shape the success of ICT integration (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2015). In the context of slum schools in Ghana, understanding how teachers perceive the relevance and effectiveness of ICT in their teaching practices is critical for designing targeted interventions. However, a critique arises from the challenge of changing entrenched beliefs. Some teachers may hold skeptical views about the utility of ICT due to past experiences or lack of exposure, making it challenging to alter these perspectives solely through training initiatives. Research highlights the need for targeted teacher professional development programs and perfectly reflect the situation with teachers in these jurisdictions (see Albion et al., 2015; Ndongfack, 2015). However, a critique emerges regarding the sustainability of such initiatives (Han et al., 2018). In resource-constrained environments, ongoing professional development may face challenges in terms of funding, accessibility, and continuity (Rueda & Cerero, 2019). The literature calls for a targeted approach that integrates professional development into teachers’ daily practices and addresses their contextual needs over the long term.

Research suggests that effective ICT integration can positively impact learning outcomes (Khojaye et al., 2014). However, a critical perspective arises regarding the need for a proper understanding of this impact within the context of ICT implementation. Simply introducing ICT tools does not guarantee improved outcomes; the effectiveness depends on how these tools are integrated into pedagogical practices and the impact of educational contexts within which these ICTs are used. The literature calls for a shift from a focus on technology availability to an emphasis on effective instructional strategies that leverage ICT for enhanced learning. It is the belief of this research that the role of context and its impact on teachers and learners regarding technology use and beliefs would be highlighted in the technology in education discourse.

2.3. Contextual factors in ICT integration

Some studies have highlighted the importance of incorporating learner-centric perspectives when integrating Information and Communication Technology (ICT) into educational settings. Blackwell et al. (2016) conducted a study that emphasizes how learners in marginalized environments, such as slum schools, face specific challenges and opportunities in using technology for educational purposes. While considering the viewpoints of learners in these settings is important, assuming homogeneity within these groups should be avoided. Learners in slum schools have diverse needs, and a one-size-fits-all approach may not account for the individual differences that impact their engagement with ICT.

The sustainable implementation of ICT in slum schools is greatly influenced by infrastructure-related obstacles, such as electricity, internet connectivity, and hardware maintenance (Farjon et al., 2019). While recognizing and addressing these challenges is essential, some studies argue for the exploration of innovative solutions. For example, the use of localized and cost-effective strategies, such as solar-powered devices or community-driven initiatives, may help overcome infrastructure limitations (Bird et al., 2017; Byker & Austin, 2014). The acceptance and use of ICT in slum schools can also be significantly influenced by cultural and societal factors (Cheng et al., 2015; Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010; Siwatu et al., 2017). However, it is important to avoid oversimplifying the impact of these factors. Cultural beliefs and societal norms are complex and dynamic, and their influence on the integration of ICT can vary greatly. Therefore, research should delve deeper into the diversity of cultural contexts within slum schools to avoid making generalized assumptions that may not apply to different communities. The existing literature advocates for the potential of ICT to foster inclusive education (Asongu & Odhiambo, 2019; Lorenzo & Coleridge, 2018; Ministry of Education [MoE], 2018). However, this perspective also raises concerns regarding the potential for exacerbating existing inequalities. Without addressing the underlying socio-economic disparities and ensuring equitable access to ICT resources, there is a risk that the integration of technology may widen the gap between different groups instead of bridging it. Policymakers need to adopt a comprehensive approach that considers not only the benefits of ICT but also the broader socio-economic context in order to achieve true inclusivity.

While studies such as Alsabawy et al. (2013) and Pima and Sedoyeka (2016) highlight resource limitations and infrastructure deficiencies in slum schools, they often overlook the impact of deeper contextual factors. This research goes beyond resource provision by examining how socio-economic disparities, cultural attitudes, and school culture shape technology access, use, and perceived value. Although existing research like Abedi et al. (2023) acknowledges the role of teacher beliefs in integrating ICT, it neglects the unique context of slum schools. This study explores how contextual factors shape teachers’ and learners’ technology use and beliefs, providing a nuanced understanding of ICT integration practices. Marcino (2018) emphasizes the significance of student motivation and technology skills for successful ICT integration but fails to consider the specific limitations imposed by the slum environment. This study investigates how factors such as teacher support, parental involvement, and cultural attitudes towards technology influence learner access, use, and engagement within slum schools.

The existing research landscape does not comprehensively understand the complex interplay between internal and external factors in ICT integration within the unique context of Ghanaian slum schools. This study aims to fill this gap by examining how contextual factors influence and modify the internal knowledge and beliefs of teachers and learners, resulting in distinct ICT utilization patterns. The findings may provide valuable insights for policymakers, educators, and researchers to develop tailored strategies that address specific challenges and leverage existing resources within slum schools. Moreover, the study findings could ensure that students in deprived communities are not left behind in the digital age. It aims to bridge the digital divide and advocate for inclusive ICT integration practices based on empirical data. Conducting a context-specific study on ICT integration in Ghanaian slum schools is not only important but crucial for achieving technological inclusivity. By investigating the interplay between internal and external factors, this research aims to offer a nuanced understanding of the challenges and opportunities unique to these environments. This will pave the way for effective and equitable ICT integration that empowers all learners to thrive in a technology-driven world.

2.4. Theoretical framework

The Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework, as proposed by Koehler et al. (2013), has emerged as a powerful tool for investigating and evaluating the integration of technology within educational contexts (Durdu & Dag, 2017; Ling Koh et al., 2014). This framework posits that successful integration necessitates teachers’ comprehensive grasp of three critical domains of knowledge: Technological Knowledge (TK), Pedagogical Knowledge (PK), and Content Knowledge (CK). Consequently, this paper contends that the TPACK framework offers a valuable analytical lens for examining the challenges and possibilities associated with the integration of information and communication technology (ICT) in slum public basic schools in Ghana, primarily due to its recognition of contextual factors.

The existing body of research demonstrates the efficacy of TPACK in diverse contexts, providing valuable insights into teacher competence within classrooms where ICT is incorporated. For instance, Koehler et al. (2013) employed the TPACK framework to scrutinize the intricacies of technology integration in K-12 education, underscoring the imperative for teachers to not only possess the requisite knowledge but also adapt it to meet specific contextual requirements. Likewise, Chen and Jiang (2023) deployed TPACK in analyzing the integration of technology by teachers in rural schools, shedding light on the significance of limited resources and communal attitudes in the formulation of interventions. Moreover, the framework has been employed to investigate teachers’ perspectives on instructional design through the scaffolded TPACK lesson design model (STLDM) (Chai & Koh, 2017). This study revealed noteworthy changes in teachers’ TPACK, as well as shifts in their design beliefs with varying effect sizes. The TPACK framework encompasses the intricate interplay of teachers’ knowledge and abilities across multiple domains, namely technological, pedagogical, and content-related.

In this study, we apply this lens to understand how school culture, community attitudes, and socio-economic conditions within slum schools influence teachers’ and learners’ beliefs and patterns of ICT utilization. TPACK goes beyond simplistic assessments of mere technological literacy by delving into the intricate interplay of knowledge domains that shape effective technology use. This is highly aligned with the complex realities faced by slum schools, where teachers must navigate resource constraints, limited professional development opportunities, and diverse student needs (Abass & Kucukmehmetoglu, 2021; Jankowska et al., 2011). The framework acknowledges that knowledge alone is not sufficient; its application is influenced by the surrounding environment (Swallow & Olofson, 2017). This resonates with the challenges encountered in slum schools, where factors such as school culture, parental involvement, and socio-economic realities significantly impact how teachers utilize technology. However, it is important to note that TPACK has faced criticism for potentially oversimplifying the complexities associated with teaching and learning using technology. Critics argue that it neglects the dynamic nature of knowledge and the ever-evolving nature of technology itself (Koehler et al., 2013). However, these limitations can be addressed by using TPACK alongside other theoretical frameworks and conducting detailed contextual investigations.

The original version of the TPACK framework received criticism for placing excessive emphasis on the knowledge and skills of teachers, potentially disregarding the impact of external factors beyond their control. This concern has been addressed in the updated version of TPACK, which incorporates contextual knowledge (Mishra, 2019). Additionally, the static representation of knowledge domains in TPACK may not fully capture the dynamic nature of teaching and learning in specific contexts (Archambault & Barnett, 2010).

We argue that examining the interaction and adaptation of TPACK components within the fluid realities of slum schools could enhance the framework’s explanatory capability. Specifically, the TPACK framework provides a valuable theoretical perspective for studying the integration of information and communication technology (ICT) in Ghanaian slum schools. Its focus on context sensitivity, comprehensive understanding of teacher knowledge, and potential to inform tailored interventions makes it highly suitable for researching this specific setting. Nevertheless, it is essential to acknowledge its limitations and employ additional frameworks and methodologies to ensure a thorough understanding of the complex factors at play. This study aims to leverage the strengths of TPACK while incorporating a comprehensive contextual analysis to shed light on the specific challenges and opportunities for successful ICT integration in these disadvantaged educational environments.

3. The study design and methods

The study employed a cross-sectional design to investigate the teacher and learner contexts of ICT integration within slum schools in Ghana. This research design allowed for data collection at a specific point in time, thus offering a snapshot of the current state of ICT integration within the selected schools. The sample comprised of 379 learners and 160 teachers from diverse slum schools in Ghana. This was calculated from Yamane (1967) formula for estimating sample sizes from known populations. Stratified random sampling techniques were utilized to ensure representation across various slum communities and school types. The researchers developed a structured questionnaire to gather quantitative data from both teachers and learners. The questionnaire consisted of closed-ended items that assessed aspects such as ICT access, beliefs, challenges, and perceived impact on teaching and learning. Prior to its implementation, the questionnaire underwent a pre-testing with a small sample to ensure clarity and relevance.

The study was conducted in two cities, Kumasi and Tamale, which were purposively selected due to their distinct geographical and socioeconomic characteristics. The selection aimed to capture a comprehensive understanding of the challenges and opportunities inherent in the different contexts under investigation. By examining variations in ICT integration challenges across different regions of the country, the findings are expected to possess increased generalizability. Additionally, the researchers aimed to explore the influence of socioeconomic contexts on access to ICT resources, ICT beliefs, and ICT utilization. To achieve a high response rate, the researchers administered questionnaires to both teachers and learners in all selected schools. Participants were provided with clear instructions regarding questionnaire completion, and the confidentiality of their responses was assured. The data collection process was carried out over a specified period to ensure consistency in responses. Data analysis was performed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 26. Descriptive statistics, such as frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations, were utilized to summarize the demographic characteristics and key variables, thereby identifying patterns in the data. Inferential statistics, including regression analysis, were employed to explore relationships and associations among the variables.

The teachers’ questionnaire, which had 36 items grouped into four constructs were administered to a sample size of 179 teachers. The reliability of the constructs was tested according to the constructs and the results of the analysis indicated that all four constructs met the minimum threshold of internal consistency (α ≥ 0.70) required for reliability in research instruments. The learners’ questionnaire comprised 37 items designed to measure the integration of ICT in slum public basic schools in Ghana. The questionnaire was administered to a sample size of 376 randomly selected learners from selected slum public basic schools. The Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient for all the four constructs ranged from a minimum of 0.68 to a maximum of 0.92 suggesting a good internal consistency among the survey items for each construct.

Both the teacher and learner questionnaires demonstrated a reliability coefficient of 0.895 and 0.897 respectively, that exceeded the recommended threshold of 0.70, indicating a high level of internal consistency. To identify potential issues with the questionnaire, a pre-test was conducted involving a small subset of teachers and learners in a similar context. Feedback from was incorporated into the refinement of certain items, contributing to the overall reliability of the instrument.

Ethical approval was obtained from the appropriate institutional review board, and informed consent was obtained from both teachers and learners, emphasizing the voluntary nature of participation and the assurance of confidentiality. Participants were reassured that their responses would be anonymized and used exclusively for research purposes.

While acknowledging the potential limitations associated with generalizing the findings beyond the selected slum schools in Ghana, efforts were made to achieve a representative sample. Additionally, it is important to note that self-report measures can introduce response biases, although steps were taken to mitigate this impact through clear instructions and assurances of confidentiality.

4. Presentation of results and findings

4.1. Demographic data for learners and teachers

The study’s demographic data classified the research respondents for learners based on age, gender, and grade. The analysis of the data indicated that most respondents (92.4%) fell within the age range of 12–17, which aligns with the typical age group found in basic schools in Ghana. The study maintained a relatively equal distribution of gender, with females accounting for 51.6% of respondents, males representing 47.9%, and a small percentage (0.5%) choosing not to disclose their gender. This gender balance is significant as it ensures fairness in the study and aids in the interpretation of the results.

Furthermore, the data reveals that Basic 8 had the highest representation, with 220 respondents (58.5%), followed by Basic 9 (21.8%) and Basic 7 (19.7%). This diverse representation across grade levels allows for the exploration of potential variations in experiences and outcomes associated with different grades. The demographic data of the participating learners is a vital aspect because it provides insights into the characteristics of the respondents and guides the interpretation of the research findings.

The distribution among respondents shows a significant gender imbalance, with a much higher representation of males (136, 76%) compared to females (43, 24%). These results reflect the general perception of the gender gap that exists among teachers at various levels of education, especially at the higher education level.

The age distribution indicates that a significant number of respondents fall within the 26 years to 45 years age group (92, 51.4%), while the 18 years to 25 years age group constitutes a smaller percentage (9, 5.0%). It is also observed that most of the respondents to the questionnaire for this study are within the age groups of 26 years to 45 years (92, 51.4%) and 36 years to 45 years (64, 35.8%).

The distribution of years of teaching experience shows that a substantial proportion of respondents have 1 year to 6 years of teaching experience. This distribution of teaching experience is critical to ICT integration, especially when examining teacher beliefs and contextual factors. The data also showed that most of the respondents hold a Bachelor of Education degree (102, 57.0%), indicating that a significant number of the respondents are well-qualified in education training and professional practice. The data on professional qualifications of the sample reveal a diverse range of qualifications among the respondents, with the most dominant qualification being Bachelor of Education.

4.2. Findings on contextual factors that influence teacher ICT use

Among the objectives of this study was to examine the contextual factors that could impact teacher’s access and confidence in using ICT resources for teaching and learning as well as various other contributing factors that could impede their ability to effectively integrate technology.

A significant proportion (61.5%) of the respondents included in the study stated that they did not have adequate access to ICT resources for teaching in their schools. The mean score of 2.51 (Disagree) reflects dissatisfaction with the availability of ICT resources. Likewise, 40.8% of the respondents either disagreed or strongly disagreed with having sufficient access to ICT resources for lesson preparation at home. The analysis further reveals that while a significant number of teachers (32.4%) expressed concerns about their training on using ICT resources for teaching, an almost equal proportion (44.7%) agreed or strongly agreed with the statement. The mean score of 3.12 falls within the ‘Agree’ range, indicating a relatively balanced perspective on training for using ICT resources in teaching.

The data also shows that most of the respondents (70.0%) agreed or strongly agreed that they are encouraged and supported by their colleagues to utilize ICT resources for teaching. The mean score of 3.78, falling within the ‘Agree’ range, highlights a positive collegial atmosphere surrounding ICT integration among these teachers. The data further reveals that most teachers (72.6%) assert that having access to adequate electricity in their communities positively influences their ability to utilize technology resources for teaching. This finding emphasizes the importance of electricity access for technology integration in education. Similarly, 68.7% of the respondents either agreed or strongly agreed that having access to adequate technology in their schools positively influences their ability to utilize technology resources for teaching and learning. This finding underscores the significant role of electricity access in our classrooms for technology use. In terms of teachers’ confidence in their ability to use technology in their classrooms, 76.0% of the respondents indicated that they feel confident in their abilities to use technology tools. This signifies a generally positive self-assessment regarding technology proficiency among basic school teachers, suggesting a high technology knowledge of teachers in the TPACK framework. Only 36.9% of the respondents indicate that they have access to reliable internet in their schools to enable them to integrate technology into their teaching. This finding further highlights access to ICT resources as a critical barrier to technology integration in education.

However, 62.6% either agreed or strongly agreed that they have reliable access to the internet at home to enable them to use technology resources for lesson preparation. The data also shows that 64.2% either disagreed or strongly disagreed with the statement that cultural beliefs about gender or social roles limit their access to technology for teaching in school. This finding appears to weaken the impact of cultural beliefs and gender on technology resource access and use for teaching among the teachers in public basic schools. Similarly, most teachers (68.7%) did not agree with the statement that cultural beliefs about gender or social roles could limit access to technology for lesson preparation at home. It underscores a generally optimistic view regarding cultural limitations and technology use.

The results of this analysis provide valuable insights into the contextual factors that could potentially affect teachers’ access and use of technology resources for teaching and learning. Some of these contextual factors presented were confidence in using ICT resources for teaching, internet access, colleagues’ support and encouragement, the influence of external factors such as electricity access, and cultural beliefs about gender and cultural roles.

4.3. Findings on contextual factors that influence learner ICT use

It was revealed from the analysis that many learners do not have access to ICT resources for learning as indicated in the percentage of respondents for disagree and strongly disagree (63.1%). These findings underscore the perception of significant digital divide in schools where substantial portion of learners face challenges in accessing necessary ICT resources for learning at school. This variance in ICT resources access could suggest that there might be discrepancies in ICT resource availability within schools, perhaps due to infrastructure limitations.

A higher percentage of the respondents (59.6%) indicated their agreement with having sufficient technical support at school when utilizing ICT resources. This suggests that schools are actively assisting and providing troubleshooting mechanisms for learners. The schools have established support systems to cater for the technological needs of learners. However, a lower percentage (36.1%) concurred that they have sufficient technical support at home, indicating potential gaps in addressing technology challenges beyond the school premises. It is important to note that most of the learners (74.8%) feel encouraged and supported by their teachers to utilize ICT resources for learning. This significant finding could greatly influence learners’ attitudes and perspectives towards technology use in schools.

In contrast, the percentage of learners who reported technology use and encouragement from parents was comparatively low (49.1%). The analysis further reveals that most of the learners (62.8%) agreed that adequate access to electricity in their community impacts their ability to utilize technology resources for learning. A similar response rate was observed regarding electricity access in school, with 57.3% of the learners agreeing to have sufficient access. Internet access significantly influences learners’ perceptions regarding technology use for learning. In-school access to the internet was perceived to be low (22.1%) compared to home access (42.1%). This finding suggests that learners may encounter difficulties in accessing the internet in the school environment, which could potentially hinder technology integration efforts. Cultural beliefs regarding gender or social roles appear to exert a relatively strong influence on learners’ access to ICT resources in both home and school environments.

A significant portion of the respondents (59.9%) disagreed that these beliefs limit their access to technology for learning in school. The response rate was slightly lower (56.3%) for home access and use of ICT resources. These findings seemingly indicate progressive attitudes towards technology access and use for learning, but they also highlight potential disparities that still exist, particularly concerning gender and social roles.

4.4. Mapping research findings to contexts in TPACK framework

By examining teachers’ practices in relation to technology use, contextual factors, access to technology resources, and aligning them with the knowledge domains, valuable insights can be gained into the extent to which technology is integrated into teaching practices in slum public basic schools. Consistent with previous studies (Chai et al., 2019; Chai & Koh, 2017; Di Blas, 2016; Durdu & Dag, 2017), the TPACK framework was employed to analyze the research findings, with the objective of discerning patterns and nuances within the data and gathering evidence to demonstrate how the findings align with the theoretical framework of the study and explicate the theoretical foundations of the research findings with specific focus on contexts.

The research findings and TPACK framework mapping is presented on Figure 1.

Figure 1. Mapping of TPACK on research findings.

Educational software and apps used by teachers, as well as the use of ICT devices that meet curriculum needs, were categorized under the Technological Content Knowledge (TCK) domain. These items appear to effectively combine knowledge in technology and the knowledge requirements of specific subjects to integrate technology in the classroom but are situated within an educational context of need and expectations for the learners and teachers. The findings for both categories appear to be very low for teachers in slum public basic schools, with only 21.8% of teachers using educational software and apps, and 24.0% of teachers using ICT devices that meet curriculum needs.

Contextual factors play a significant role in educational research, particularly in relation to teacher practices (Kivunja et al., 2017; Swallow & Olofson, 2017). These factors have the potential to either facilitate or impact the integration of technology in education (Mishra, 2019). The findings regarding Contextual Knowledge (XK), as depicted in Figure 1, suggest that all contextual factors contribute to technology use, except for being encouraged and supported by colleagues to utilize technology for teaching (69.9%), access to internet at home (62.6%), cultural beliefs about gender and societal roles in technology use within the school (22.9%), and cultural beliefs about gender and societal roles in technology use at home (16.8%). These findings indicate that teachers’ use of technology in schools is influenced by the support they receive from their colleagues. It is intriguing to note that 62.6% of the respondents reported having reliable internet access at home, while a lower percentage (36.9%) of the same respondents indicated having reliable internet access at school.

The findings indicate that several contextual factors significantly influence teachers’ utilization of technology in slum public basic schools in Ghana. These factors include access ICT resources within the educational institution (21.8%), availability of ICT resources at teachers’ homes (41.9%), adequacy of training on ICT implementation in educational settings (44.7%), and access to the internet while at school (36.9%).

4.5. Partial correlation matrix

To prepare the data for analysis, a partial correlation matrix was created by correlating each key study variables for both teachers and learner’s ICT related factors while partialling out variance explained by the control variables (demographics). The resulting matrix are summarised in Tables 1 and 2.

Table 1. Partial correlation matrix of teacher ICT variables.

	1	2	3
1. Teachers ICT Use	–
2. Teachers ICT Beliefs	.168*	–
3. Teachers ICT Contextual Factors	−.279**	−.127(n.s)	–

Note. All betas are standardised coefficients. * = p < .05, ** = p < .01. N = 179.

Table 2. Partial correlation matrix of learner ICT variables.

	1	2	3
1. Learners ICT Use	–
2. Learners ICT Beliefs	.127*	–
3. Learners Contextual Factors	.654**	.082 (n.s.)	–

Note. All betas are standardised coefficients. * = p < .05; ** = p < .01. N = 372.

The correlation analysis identities and evaluates a relationship between two variables, but a positive correlation does not automatically mean one variable affects the other as depicted in Tables 3 and 4. Thus, the researcher was cautious that correlation does not equal causation. Consequently, whilst the correlation analysis cannot draw any conclusions regarding the causal effect of one type of data on the other, it helps to determine the size, degree, and direction of the relationship.

Table 3. Models of regression analysis predicting Teacher ICT Beliefs (TIB).

Model	Unstandardized coefficients		Standardized coefficients	t	Sig
	B	Std. Error	Beta(β)
TCF	.047	.028	.327	1.697	.010

Note. a. Dependent Variable: Teacher ICT Beliefs (TIB).

b. Independent Variables (Constant): Teacher Contextual Factors (TCF).

Table 4. Models of regression analysis predicting teacher ICT Use (TIU).

Model	Unstandardized Coefficients		Standardized Coefficients	t	Sig
	B	Std. Error	Beta(β)
TCF	.153	.040	.279	3.862	.000

Note. a. Dependent Variable: Teacher ICT Use (TIU).

b. Independent Variables (Constant): Teacher Contextual Factors (TCF).

4.6. Models of regression analysis predicting teacher and learner ICT variables contextual factors

As noted above, each predictor variable was tested against the dependent variable to either support or reject a hypothesis using a regression equation by the stepwise regression method. As is the standard practice in Social Science research, a confidence interval of 95% (P <.05) was adopted as a benchmark to accept or reject a hypothesis. A presentation of these regression models is illustrated as follows:

To analyze the hypotheses of the study, the researcher applied multiple linear regression analysis at 95% confidence intervals. Table 3 illustrates the models of regression of Teacher ICT Access (TIA) and Teacher Contextual Factors (TCF) as predictors of Teacher ICT Beliefs (TIB). The analysis showed a significant model summary: F(2, 176)=2.064, p < .010, which explained 23% of variance. Yet, a further inspection of the table revealed that Teacher Contextual Factors (TCF) positively predicted Teacher ICT Beliefs (TIB) (β = .327, p < .05), indicating that hypothesis 1 (H1: TCF → TIB) was statistically supported.

Again, the researcher employed linear regression techniques at 95% confidence interval to analyze hypotheses 2 on the empirical assumptions of Teacher Contextual Factors (TCF) as predictor of Teacher ICT Use (TIU). A summary of the analysis is presented in Table 4. The analysis indicated a significant model summary: F(2, 176)=11.981, p < .001, explaining 12% change in total variance.

Further models of multiple regression analysis were calculated to find the influence of Learners’ Contextual Factors (LCF) on Learner’s ICT Beliefs (LIB) in slum public basic schools. The results of the linear regression analysis are presented on Table 5.

Table 5. Models of regression analysis predicting Learner ICT Beliefs (LIB).

Model	Unstandardized coefficients		Standardized coefficients	t	Sig
	B	Std. Error	Beta
LCF	.063	.037	.089	1.720	.086

Note. a. Dependable Variable: Learner ICT Beliefs (LIB).

b. Independent Variable (Constant): Learner’ Contextual Factors (LCF).

Table 6. Models of regression analysis predicting Learner ICT Use (LIU).

Model	Unstandardized coefficients		Standardized coefficients	t	Sig
	B	Std. Error	Beta
LCF	.563	.051	.495	11.013	.000

Note. a. Dependable Variable: Learner ICT Use (LIU).

b. Independent Variable (Constant): Learner’ Contextual Factors (LCF).

Results of the analysis showed a significant model summary as: F(2, 369)=1.165, p < .05, which explained 23% of the variance. An inspection of the analysis also reveals that LCF has a lower Beta value (β = .089) suggesting that LCF has a relatively weak positive impact on Learners’ ICT Beliefs (LIB) and a p-value above 0.05 (p =.086), hence hypothesis 3 (H3: LCF → LIB) was not supported. These findings appear to imply that Learners’ Contextual Factors do not appear to have any influence on their beliefs about ICT prospects in education.

An inspection of results of the multiple linear regression analysis showed a significant model summary as: F(2, 369)=193.832, p < .001, explaining a 26% variance. Further inspection of the individual predictors reveals that the results further indicate that LCF is a strong and significant predictor of the dependent variable LIU as evidenced by a standardized coefficient (β = .495) and a very low p-value (p < 0.001), thus providing a statistically significant support for hypothesis 4 (H4: LCF → LIU).

5. Discussion of findings

5.1 Contextual factors influencing teachers’ ICT use

Context is essential to educational research, influencing theory development (Swallow & Olofson, 2017) and teaching and learning practices. The results indicated that there is low teacher technology use in the classroom, low teacher technology use to give assignments and tasks in the slum public basic schools. Low technology use in classroom for teaching could indicate a resistance to change among educators (Sánchez-Prieto et al., 2019) or poor teacher access to ICT resources (Ramdeyal, 2014). Teachers might be comfortable with traditional teaching methods and reluctant to incorporate technology into their instructional strategies. Low technology use might also signal a lack of technological knowledge among teachers (Koehler et al., 2013). This finding could also imply that teachers do not feel confident or skilled enough to effectively integrate technology into their lessons (Technological Pedagogical Knowledge) pointing to the need for professional development and training to enhance their digital literacy (Ndongfack, 2015). Teachers who use technology minimally may not have experienced the full range of benefits that technology can offer in the classroom. They may not be aware of or have not fully explored the potential advantages of technology in enhancing teaching and learning. Low technology use could result from inadequate support and resources in the educational context (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2015). Teachers may not have access to the necessary tools, infrastructure, or training to effectively use technology for teaching and assignment management.

TPACK has proven invaluable in understanding the theoretical basis of successful technology integration though it often fails to provide reasons. Even after possessing knowledge of TPACK principles, some teachers still struggle with effectively integrating technology (Reyes et al., 2017). This research provides an essential missing piece by identifying contextual factors, such as limited resources, family support issues or negative societal attitudes that act as barriers to teacher ICT use. To increase teacher technology adoption and use, it is important to address the barriers and challenges that contribute to low technology use. This may involve providing professional development, creating a supportive school culture, improving infrastructure, and demonstrating the benefits of technology for teaching and learning. Contextual factors (Contextual Knowledge) could influence and interact with each element of TPACK, making the teacher knowledge more dynamic and adaptable. For instance, school culture could impact how teachers understand pedagogy for technology integration (Contextual Pedagogical Knowledge with Technology), while community attitudes about technology might impact how teachers deliver content (Contextual Technological Content Knowledge).

The research finding that contextual factors significantly influence teacher ICT use makes a significant contribution to the TPACK framework by adding depth and practical application to the model. It enhances our understanding of how teachers navigate technology integration in real-world settings and paves the way for more effective approaches to supporting successful integration in diverse contexts.

5.2. Contextual factors influencing learners’ ICT use

Contextual factors have a significant influence on learners’ use of ICTs in their educational practices. The purpose of the research objective was to explore the contextual factors influencing learners’ ICT use in slum public basic schools in Ghana. The study also hypothesized that Contextual Factors in a learner’s school and home environment have significant influence on their ICT Use. A regression analysis was further analyzed to find out if Contextual Factors in a learner’s school and home environment have significant influence on their ICT beliefs.

An inspection of the descriptive data indicates that learners’ access to ICT resources to use for learning at home and school are both low (30.3% and 35.9% respectively). The analysis further unearthed other critical contextual factors that could be influencing learner’s ICT use as low technical support at home, poor encouragement, and support from parents to use ICT resources for learning, limited access to internet at school and unreliable or poor access to internet at home.

Numerous studies have emphasized the pivotal role of parental support in shaping a child’s engagement with technology for educational purposes. Our findings align with research by Warih et al. (2020) and Osam et al. (2021), who highlighted the significance of parental involvement in fostering positive attitudes towards ICT use in educational settings. The correlation between limited internet access at school and the reduced utilization of ICT resources echoes the findings of Natia and Al-Hassan (2015), underlining the critical role of institutional infrastructure in facilitating technology integration. The identified contextual factors contribute valuable insights to the broader field of ICT integration in education. Recognizing the impact of low technical support at home highlights the necessity for comprehensive strategies of ICT integration that extend beyond the classroom interventions. The findings underscore the need for targeted interventions to bridge the digital divide and ensure equitable access to ICT resources, thereby fostering a more inclusive learning environment. This study emphasizes the interconnectedness of home and school environments in influencing learners’ ICT use for educational activities. The findings further accentuate the importance of collaborative efforts between educators and parents to create a cohesive support system for learners’ technology use. This holistic approach suitably aligns with the call for a more integrated and collaborative approach to ICT integration advocated by Koehler et al. (2013) on their discourse on TPACK.

The regression analysis showed that contextual factors in a learner’s school and home environment significantly influence their ICT use. Several plausible explanations could have accounted for the observed contextual factors influencing learners’ ICT use. Socioeconomic disparities could have contributed to the limited technical support at home, emphasizing the need for targeted interventions in economically disadvantaged communities. The digital divide and disparities in internet access underscore the broader challenges associated with technology infrastructure, requiring systemic changes and policy interventions.

The findings of this study align with the TPACK framework, providing a nuanced understanding of the factors influencing technology adoption and integration in educational contexts noting that the TPACK framework underscores the interplay between technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge. The lack of parental encouragement could affect the development of pedagogical strategies that integrate ICT effectively. Addressing these challenges requires a holistic approach that considers the dynamic interaction between technological, pedagogical, and contextual factors. This research highlights the intricate web of contextual factors influencing learners’ ICT use, offering valuable contributions to the existing body of literature, and informing future efforts to enhance ICT integration in education.

The findings of this study align with several existing studies in literature that have explored contextual factors influencing ICT use among learners. The provision of technical support has been consistently identified as a crucial factor in determining the effective integration of ICT in education (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2015). The positive impact of teacher encouragement and support on learners’ ICT use has also been highlighted in previous research, emphasizing the role of teachers as facilitators in the adoption of technology (Davis et al., 1989). Access to electricity has been recognized as a fundamental infrastructure requirement for successful ICT integration (Sey, 2013), and the confidence of learners in using ICT has been linked to their overall digital competence (Stone, 2020). However, the unique context of slum public basic schools in Ghana has introduced additional dimensions to these factors.

The absence of cultural beliefs about gender and social roles as contextual factors hindering ICT use is noteworthy, as gender stereotypes have often been identified as a significant barrier to ICT adoption, particularly in developing countries (Kasinathan, 2019). These findings challenge the assumption that cultural beliefs universally shape ICT use patterns and highlight the importance of considering the specific socio-cultural context when investigating the impact of cultural factors.

6. Conclusion, recommendation and future studies

Contextual factors were identified as important influences on both the use of ICT by teachers and learners. Contextual factors identified included teachers’ access to ICT resources, teacher professional development in technology and poor access to internet connectivity in the home and school. Also, learners’ access and parental support were found to be significant contextual factors influencing technology use. This highlights the need for an integrated approach to technology that considers diverse contextual factors, such as infrastructure, socio-economic conditions and cultural beliefs and the key roles they play in technology use in school. The regression analysis also confirmed that contextual factors of teachers have a positive impact on their ICT usage. By highlighting the impact of contextual factors, this research broadens the scope of TPACK to encompass the external environment in which teachers operate. This acknowledges that teachers do not exist in a vacuum, and their technology use is shaped by the surrounding circumstances in school and home. It is important to address the various contextual factors that influence teachers’ beliefs, attitudes and confidence when using ICT in teaching and learning. Policymakers should give priority to equipping teachers with appropriate and relevant ICT materials, offering continuous professional development, and providing technical support that are relevant to the context within which teachers practice.

The findings of the research have profound implications for Sustainable Development Goals 4 and 10. They emphasize the importance of considering not only quantity, but also quality and variety of ICT resources. ICT resources should be aligned with curriculum, assessment, pedagogy, and other goals. Infrastructure maintenance and technical support are also critical to enable teachers provide the required support to learners. It is crucial to achieve the SDGs ensuring that learners, teachers, and other stakeholders develop their digital literacy and ICT skill sets through training, guidance and feedback. This research advances our understanding of the complex relationships between ICT access and beliefs in public basic schools located in slums. These study offers a guide for policymakers, educators, and stakeholders to navigate the challenges of integrating ICT effectively and inclusively, encouraging positive attitudes and beliefs and contributing to quality education.

For teachers, the findings underscore the importance of reflective practice and professional development opportunities that promote a deepened understanding of their own ICT beliefs and how these beliefs may align or misalign with those of their learners. Teachers should be encouraged to adopt adaptive pedagogical strategies that consider the diverse backgrounds and challenges faced by learners in urban slum environments, fostering a more collaborative and supportive approach to ICT integration. The findings, which suggest that teachers’ ICT beliefs are not significantly influenced by teacher access to ICT resources, indicate that teachers and educational practitioners should recognize that positive ICT beliefs could exist independently of extensive access to resources. Professional development programs should not solely focus on increasing resource access but should also emphasize pedagogical strategies that allow teachers to make the most of the available resources.

The results of this study have significant implications for future research on ICT integration, urging scholars to further investigate the intricacies of teacher-learner dynamics within specific educational contexts. Further investigations should explore how contextual factors, such as resource constraints and classroom environments, mediate the relationship between teachers and learners’ ICT beliefs. Understanding these details is essential for developing targeted technological interventions that could effectively bridge the gap between teachers and learners in technology adoption.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Issah Baako

Issah Baako is a final year student of PhD in ICT Education in the Department of Teacher Education in the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in Kumasi, Ghana. He is also the Coordinator for Research and Publications in the Bagabaga College of Education, Tamale, Ghana. He teaches ICT in Education related courses in the Department of Mathematics and ICT in the same college. His research areas are ICT integration in Education, teacher technology self-efficacy and social media in education.

W. K. Abroampa

Winston Kwame Abroampa is an Associate Professor of Curriculum Development and Early Childhood Education and the Dean of the Faculty of Educational Studies of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in Kumasi, Ghana. His research areas focus on curriculum implementation, teacher efficacy, early childhood curriculum and learner proficiency.