Towards the pivotal factors for the influence of flipped classroom on students’ self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence

Abstract

Self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence are seen as crucial abilities for students to acquire in the twenty-first century. However, EFL students’ performance in self-regulated learning and speaking has not been optimal. Therefore, the implementation of flipped classrooms aims to achieve a breakthrough in self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence. So, by taking an interpretative qualitative approach, this study explored in-depth the pivotal factors that caused the influence of the flipped classroom on students’ self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence from the perspective of students’ own experiences and viewpoints. The data collected include students’ records of academic performance and reflective journals and in-depth interviews with eight university students to explore pivotal factors for the influence of the flipped classroom on students’ self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence. Thematic analysis was used to analyze the data. The results showed student-related factors (learning style, learning interests, and self-confidence) and classroom-related factors (flipped classroom design, content and materials, and quality of instructions) influencing the students’ development of self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence in the flipped classroom. The findings shed light on the factors why the flipped classroom influences self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence. Moreover, the study proposes a student-oriented framework for EFL speaking flipped classrooms to help enhance students’ self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence.

Keywords:

• EFL speaking competence
• self-regulated learning
• flipped classroom
• pivotal factors
• influence

Reviewing Editor:

• John Chiang, State University of New York, USA

Subjects:

• Higher Education
• English Language
• Language Teaching & Learning

1. Introduction

As a global language, English has become a need for the majority of people seeking opportunities in different professions (Abdullah et al., 2021). English language study is mandated in many non-English-speaking countries and is regarded as the dominant communication medium in the global educational sphere (Sinagatullin, 2019). In academic, social, and professional contexts, speaking English as a Foreign Language (EFL) is considered a necessary skill and a prerequisite for effective communication of ideas (Abdullah et al., 2019; Hsu, 2020; Wu et al., 2017). Nevertheless, weak EFL speaking competence has consistently been one of EFL students’ most pervasive issues (Abdullah et al., 2019).

Likewise, self-regulated learning is one of the twenty-first century’s talents and skills that are becoming especially prominent (Zimmerman, 1990). It requires students to actively regulate and supervise their cognition, metacognition, learning behaviour, and motivation throughout the learning process, which includes strategies and object processes (Panadero, 2017). Language acquisition has been shown to benefit through self-regulated learning (Al-Hawamleh et al., 2022), which has been employed as a contributing approach to help students’ accomplishment of speaking competence (Menggo et al., 2022). However, the majority of students struggle to self-regulate their learning (Lin & Dai, 2022; Sun & Wang 2020) and may depend on instructors’ guidance (Wu & Ekstam, 2021).

Therefore, the implementation of flipped classrooms aims to achieve a breakthrough in self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence. The flipped classroom is an integral component of education (Al-Maroof & Al-Emran, 2021), As such, this is a new possibility for students since it impacts their learning process and outcomes (Bernacki et al., 2020). This kind of classroom mode is a kind of technological support that requires keeping up with the advancement of information and communication technology (Ehlers & Kellermann, 2019; Golonka et al., 2014), and supports students’ self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence (Tan et al., 2017). It also becomes pivotal in the sustainable development of education (Carrión-Martínez et al., 2020).

Previous studies have demonstrated the value of flipped classrooms (Flumerfelt & Green, 2013; Rajaram, 2019; Sun et al., 2019; Vaughan, 2014). In a flipped classroom, the majority of students have positive perceptions and pleasurable educational experiences (Abdelshaheed, 2017; Adnan, 2017; Alsowat, 2016; Roth et al., 2016; Wu et al., 2017; Yudintseva, 2016). Analogously, a group of educators admits that a flipped classroom inspires students and instils confidence in their abilities (Engin & Donanci, 2016; Teng, 2018). As a unique classroom mode, it can successfully increase EFL classroom efficiency (Gilboy et al., 2015), and cultivate students’ self-regulated learning ability (O'Flaherty & Phillips, 2015). Notably, recent studies demonstrated that flipped classrooms can result in students’ better self-regulated learning performance and EFL speaking competence (Kusuma, 2020).

Hitherto, despite the proliferation of flipped classrooms in EFL education, there has been little scholarly study on the impact of flipped classes on students in the EFL environment (Al-Ghamdi & Al-Bargi, 2017; Amiryousefi, 2019). Only a few studies explored the factors of why flipped classrooms affect students’ self-regulated learning and focused on the reasons why students engage in or do not engage in self-regulated learning (Beatty & Albert, 2016; Chen et al., 2014). Furthermore, self-reported views of students’ self-regulated learning in a flipped classroom are insufficient (Shih et al., 2019), since not all students in the flipped classroom were adjustable, and not all students were prepared for and receptive to more individualized and self-regulated learning (Al-Samarraie et al., 2020). As a result, there is a scarcity in the exploration of the pivotal factors that contribute to the influence of the flipped classroom on students’ self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence. Responses to the following research question are solicited for the purposes of this study:

RQ: What are the pivotal factors that influence students’ self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence in the flipped classroom?

2. Literature review

2.1. The concept of the flipped classroom

The concept of the flipped classroom originated in the 1990s. Lage et al. (2000) devised a flipped classroom in which students were presented with a variety of pre-class resources, including textbook reading materials, movies, and voice-over PowerPoint presentations. While the classroom is flipped, students are required to complete pre-assigned materials and view instructive videos in place of lectures (Bergmann & Sams, 2012; Davies et al., 2013), so that class time that would have been spent on assignments may now be used for other objectives (Battaglia & Kaya, 2015; Bergmann & Sams, 2012; Davies et al., 2013). Students can participate in class discussions or receive assistance with subjects they were unable to master on their own (Davies et al., 2013). It signifies that students engage in cooperative learning activities with active, group problem-solving exercises designed to enhance higher-order thinking abilities throughout class time (Bishop & Verleger, 2013; Hao, 2016; Winter, 2018).

The flipped classroom was originally widely adopted by educational communities in Europe and North America and is now gaining popularity in Asian universities (Kvashnina & Martynko, 2016). It is on the rise as a pedagogical innovation that alters the traditional classroom, fosters students’ ability to self-regulate their learning, and makes the classroom more stimulating and appealing (Bergmann & Sams, 2012, 2014; O'Flaherty & Phillips, 2015). Researcher also claim that the flipped classroom is an alternative method of language training that integrates technology and confers students sufficient learning opportunities (Chen et al., 2014; Hung, 2015; McLaughlin et al., 2014). Over the past several years, there has been an explosion of interest in flipped classrooms at all levels of education (Hung, 2017). It is frequently used in accounting, biology, business, and education at various levels of education in many nations (Phillips & Trainor, 2014; Rajaram, 2019; Seyedmonir et al., 2014; Vaughan, 2014). A rising number of studies on the flipped classroom attests to its growing popularity (Green, 2015; Jamaludin & Osman, 2014).

2.2. Theoretical Background-Pintrich’s self-regulated learning model

Pintrich (2000) claims that self-regulated learning is a positive, productive process in which students establish learning objectives, and then seek to monitor, manage, and control their cognitive abilities, motivation, and conduct, regulated and controlled by their objectives and the contextual features of their setting. According to Pintrich’s self-regulated learning model (refer to Figure 1), self-regulated learning is compounded by four phases: (1) forethought, planning, and activation; (2) monitoring; (3) control; and (4) reaction and reflection. Each of them has four different regulation areas: (1) cognition, (2) motivation/affect, (3) behavior, and (4) context. These four areas are paired with the four phases to provide a thorough picture of a large number of self-regulated learning processes, which serve as the foundation for self-regulated learning (Pintrich, 2000).

Figure 1. Self-regulated learning model (Pintrich, 2000).

3. Materials and methods

3.1. Research design

An interpretive qualitative research design was adopted to explore the pivotal factors for the influence of the flipped classroom on students’ self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence. In the realm of interpretive qualitative research, education is conceptualized as an ongoing transformative journey, while the school setting represents an experiential reality (Merriam, 1998). It endeavors to provide an explanatory account of the phenomena that individuals perceive and define within their ecological context (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). Rather than engaging in causal inference, predictive modelling, or quantitative assessments of attribute distribution within a populace and student performance metrics, a qualitative researcher is primarily concerned with gaining insight into individuals’ subjective interpretations of their experiences, the construction of their perceptual frameworks, and the semiotic significance they ascribe to these lived encounters (Merriam & Elizabeth, 2015). Therefore, the interpretative study approach was adopted and allowed the researcher to illuminate why the flipped classroom influences students’ self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence and EFL speaking competence systematically and profoundly.

Furthermore, within the context of qualitative research, the researcher serves as the principal instrument throughout the entirety of the investigative process (Yin, 2014). Therefore, the researcher may immerse themselves in a specific natural environment. It also exhibits remarkable adaptability in its design characteristics, making it well-suited for a range of research objectives, and it stands as the most suitable approach for addressing questions pertaining to the ‘why’ aspect (Butler, 2015). Thus, in this study, the adoption of an interpretive qualitative research design proves well-suited for probing into the manner in which individuals engage with and perceive the social context that envelops them. Concurrently, the researcher upheld an impartial and unprejudiced stance towards the nascent thematic elements.

3.2. Research context and respondents

Due to the importance of context in studies involving the mental world of students, accurately expressing the background can enhance the credibility of the study process, methodological approaches, and findings. This research was undertaken at West Technology University (a pseudonym) located in Zhejiang Province, China. This university was selected due to its role as the experimental center for foreign language teaching and learning in China. Since 2015, West Technology University has been at the forefront of implementing diverse flipped English courses in alignment with the computer-based and classroom-based EFL speaking instruction endorsed by the Chinese government and the Ministry of Education (MOE). Presently, West Technology University stands as the premier institution for English flipped classrooms and a sophisticated online flipped classroom platform replete with abundant online learning resources and features for self-regulated learning.

This research’s flipped classroom is an EFL IELTS speaking class with a duration of 12 weeks and 45 minutes of class time every two weeks. This flipped classroom’s pre-class learning videos were specifically recorded by the instructor, with each video having an approximate duration of 10 minutes. At approximately three-minute intervals during the video presentations, interactive pop-up questions related to the content of the instructional video appear on the screen. Students are required to click and provide responses to these pop-up questions as they engage with the video material. The online system tracks the viewing time of the students and whether they have responded to the pop-up questions.

Regarding the recruitment of respondents, criterion-based sampling was utilised, which is a sort of sampling in which the researcher may select the students to be examined using a small sample size depending on the students who fulfil the required characteristics (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Gray, 2018). Criterion-based sampling is defined by Merriam and Elizabeth (2015) as a sample chosen by the researcher to explore and acquire understanding and insight into occurrences or phenomena. To initiate the process of criterion-based sampling, the researcher initially identified the key criteria that were crucial in guiding the selection of interviewees or the choice of observation sites (Merriam & Grenier, 2019).

Therefore, to maintain consistency with the study objective, the following inclusion criteria have been established: 1. First-year students who registered in the EFL IELTS-speaking flipped class who have not engaged in EFL speaking flipped classrooms previously; 2. Similar English grades on the college entrance exam; 3. The same instructor and course materials; 4. Willingness to engage in the whole research procedure.

In the context of this research, among these voluntary students (most of them were males), eight first-year students (6 males and 2 females were chosen based on the gender ratio of voluntary students) from West Technology University (a pseudonym), who formed different gender respondents with similar English score of college entrance examination, were purposively extracted from an EFL speaking flipped classroom for the purpose of conducting further exploration and comprehensive interviews to ensure students’ diversity and representativeness and increase the study’s reliability.

This selection process was employed to augment the diversity and representativeness of the student cohort, thereby reinforcing the overall methodological rigour and trustworthiness of the study. Table 1 summarizes the respondents’ profiles.

Table 1. Profiles of the respondents.

	Students (Pseudonym)	Age	Gender	Flipped classroom experience	English score of college entrance examination
1	Xion	18	Male	No	135
2	Renald	18	Male	No	139
3	Charlene	19	Male	No	136
4	Yuliya	18	Female	No	136
5	Runny	19	Male	No	133
6	Chenche	18	Female	No	135
7	Jimnah	19	Male	No	138
8	Zach	20	Male	No	130

3.3. Data collection and analysis

The qualitative data about pivotal factors that caused the influence of the flipped classroom on students’ self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence were gathered from students’ records of academic performance and reflective journals, and in-depth interviews.

In accordance with the definition provided by Bogdan and Biklen (2007), reflective journals, categorized as personal records, encompass any firsthand narrative that elucidates an individual’s actions, encounters, and convictions. Additionally, reflective journals are an inconspicuous method of data gathering, reflecting the student’s perspective and allowing the researcher to gain insight into students’ inner thoughts (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Yin, 2014). In the course of this research, respondents were tasked with composing reflective journals, documenting their perspectives and encounters related to self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence within the flipped classroom setting following each class session. To facilitate this process, a reflective journal protocol (refer to Appendix A) was provided to the respondents, offering guidance on the specific experiences they were encouraged to document in their journals.

Simultaneously, the instructor documented and assessed the initial and final speaking performances of the respondents, along with their corresponding speaking scores. This evaluation was conducted using the students’ initial and final speaking audio recordings, which were publicly accessible records on the school’s online flipped platform. The speaking scores were based on the band descriptions for the IELTS speaking section. Following a three-month learning period, the students’ academic performance records were utilized to ascertain the efficacy of the flipped classroom in enhancing students’ self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence. This validation was conducted by referencing the university’s official documents, as one of the primary merits of employing documentary materials lies in their reliability and objectivity as sources of data. (Merriam, 2009).

As for in-depth interviews, all eight respondents participated in a 45-minute recorded in-depth interview after every two flipped classes via Tencent Video Conference; therefore, three in-depth interviews were conducted to collect specific data for this study, as the in-depth interview allows respondents to think and elaborate on their responses, allowing the researcher to obtain more detailed explanations (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Gray, 2018; Yin, 2014). Conducting just a single interview would present challenges in drawing a reliable conclusion regarding the consistency of responses over the course of the semester (Webster & Hadwin, 2015). Also, three interview transcripts were prepared for data triangulation. The interview design was semi-structured since qualitative research interviews are more open-ended and less structured (Merriam, 2009), and the researcher employed a sequence of open-ended questions during the interviews, a method that demonstrated effectiveness in data collection (Ibrahim & Edgley, 2015). Two in-depth interview protocols (refer to Appendix B and C) were developed first to identify a set of open-ended questions. The interviews were scheduled according to the researcher’s and the respondents’ availability.

To acquire authentic and dependable data, both the reflective journal and interviews were conducted in respondents’ native language, Chinese. This choice was made to ensure the utilization of terms and expressions that hold significance within the respondents’ cultural and experiential framework, ultimately enhancing the data’s quality (Merriam, 1998). During the interview, a friendly and comfortable atmosphere was created to encourage respondents to speak in their own voice and freely share their opinions and experiences. The researcher remained attention to the replies of the respondents and posed a series of questions to collect as much information as possible. In these eight responders, data saturation was reached. The researcher translated verbatim to guarantee parity, and all the reflective journal and interview data were transcribed into English verbatim to assure equivalency for subsequent analysis.

The obtained reflective journal and interview data were painstakingly evaluated using Braun and Clarke’s (2006) approach of thematic analysis, which is a recursive process of identifying patterns or themes within qualitative data (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The objective of thematic analysis was to discover themes, i.e. significant or intriguing patterns in the data, and to utilise these themes to address and understand the respondents’ ideas in a meaningful way (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The researcher employed an inductive or data-driven approach, which purely reflected the content of the data without any pre-existing theory or conceptual framework guiding the analysis. The data was not coded to fit a predetermined coding structure; rather, open coding was used to faithfully capture the respondents’ conveyed meaning.

In the initial familiarization stage, the researcher immersed themselves in the data, which entailed viewing recorded interview videos and systematically reviewing reflective journals and interview transcripts without interruption. This process aimed to develop a holistic comprehension of the dataset. At the early iteration of coding during the initial coding phase, the researcher employed the ‘comments’ feature available in Microsoft Word. This allowed for the annotation of codes within the document’s margins, concurrently highlighting the specific textual segments associated with each code. Subsequently, through a series of meticulous rounds of scrutiny and iterative analysis of the transcripts, these coded phrases were synthesized into broader, more comprehensive themes.

The inter-rater reliability of the coding work was evaluated by two experts with at least a master’s degree in English and more than five years of English teaching experience from the EFL faculty department of West Technology University (a pseudonym) to confirm the reliability of the findings. The experts assessed the coding of themes, subthemes, and their related descriptors in order to evaluate the agreements. According to Miles and Huberman (1994), the overall dependability value was 0.89, which was adequate.

4. Results

Examination of students’ academic performance records unveiled an improvement in the respondents’ EFL speaking competence in the flipped classroom, as depicted in Table 2. Subsequent analysis delved into the reflective journal and interview data to elucidate the underlying factors contributing to this influence. This comprehensive examination yielded the identification of six sub-themes, categorized under two overarching themes: student-related factors and classroom-related factors, as detailed in Table 3.

Table 2. Respondents’ speaking performance score based on IELTS speaking band descriptor.

Student		Xion	Renald	Charlene	Yuliya	Runny	Chenche	Jimnah	Zach
First IELTS speaking evaluation	Band	4.5	5	5	4.5	5	5	5	4.5
Final IELTS speaking evaluation	Band	5.5	7	6.5	5.5	6	6.5	7	5.5

Table 3. Final coding systems of the pivotal factors for the influence of flipped classroom on students’ self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence.

Themes	Sub-themes	Descriptors
A. Student-related factors	Learning style	Students’ preferred way to absorb, process, comprehend and retain learning content
	Learning interests	Students’ interests in learning
	Self-confidence	Students’ self-confidence in their learning adaptability, and self-confidence in their learning ability
B. Classroom-related factors	Flipped classroom design	Curriculum design, flexible learning, and classroom environment
	Content and materials	Quality of learning content and materials
	Quality of instructions	Quality of the instruction’s delivery and instructions

4.1. Student-related factors

4.1.1. Learning style

When relating to their learning styles, respondents elaborated on their individual preferences for absorbing, processing, comprehending, and retaining learning materials in the context of English speaking. The majority of the respondents highlighted their inclination towards watching online videos independently and engaging in discussions and interactions within a student-centred classroom environment. Respondents expressed a genuine fondness for this kind of learning style, acknowledging its influence on their self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence. For instance, Xion articulated that the combination of video consumption, discussions, and interpersonal communication yielded more favourable results compared to traditional book reading in the realm of English language learning. Charlene emphasized the effectiveness of listening to spoken expressions from fellow students and engaging in face-to-face discussions as valuable learning methods. Jimnah advocated for the provision of additional learning materials in the form of videos to facilitate self-regulated learning, citing their efficiency in knowledge absorption. The supporting evidence is presented below:

I think I like watching videos before class, discussing and communicating in class to improve my speaking competence, which is more effective than reading books in high school. (Xion, Interview 2)

The face-to-face class, I can listen to the speaking expression of many students and discuss with them. This kind of learning is very effective. (Charlene, Reflective Journal 6)

I think that more learning videos can be provided for us to do self-regulated learning instead of written documents. I found that videos are more efficient for absorbing knowledge. (Jimnah, Interview 2)

4.1.2. Learning interests

The other pivotal factor identified in respondents’ experiences was learning interests. The respondents who displayed a general enthusiasm for the flipped classroom also demonstrated a keen interest in self-regulated learning and the practice of EFL speaking. They conveyed a strong desire to maintain their engagement in self-regulated learning and EFL speaking throughout the course. For instance, Xion indicated that learning interest was the biggest driving force for learning and wanted to raise interest in speaking. Yuliya pointed out the importance of sustaining interest in learning English through activities like watching movies. Charlene, on the other hand, shared an increased interest in the content of the face-to-face classroom sessions after engaging with pre-class online videos. The supporting evidence is presented below:

Because learning interest is certainly the biggest driving force for learning. I want to raise my interest and find some fun in speaking English, which may be more helpful to learning. (Xion, Interview 3)

I will always go to see some English movies to maintain my interest in learning English. (Yuliya, Interview 3)

By taking advantage of the pre-class time to give us some objective knowledge points for self-regulated learning, I have some new curiosity and interest in the content of the face-to-face classroom. (Charlene, Reflective Journal 1)

4.1.3. Self-Confidence

The third pivotal factor elucidated from the respondents’ experiences pertained to self-confidence. The findings uncovered two dimensions of students’ self-confidence that appeared to exert influence on their self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence within the context of the flipped classroom. These dimensions were students’ self-confidence in their learning adaptability and self-confidence in their learning ability. Self-confidence in learning adaptability pertains to students’ confidence in their capacity to adapt to the flipped classroom and effectively manage their own learning processes. Respondents expressed a high level of adaptability to the flipped classroom. Xion perceived an enhancement in his speaking competence following successful adaptation to this classroom mode. Chenche experienced better learning and expressed that it was easy to adapt to this classroom mode. Jimnah successfully acclimated to this classroom mode and got more effective methods in learning to improve speaking competence and self-regulated learning. The supporting evidence is presented below:

After adapting to this classroom mode, I am confident that my speaking competence has improved significantly. (Xion, Reflective Journal 2)

It is easy for me to adapt to this classroom mode and the classroom atmosphere, and I had a better learning experience in the classroom. (Chenche, Interview 1)

I am confident that I can adapt to this classroom mode very well, and I can get more effective methods in learning, so as to better improve my speaking competence and self-regulated learning. (Jimnah, Reflective Journal 6)

As for self-confidence in learning ability, it refers to students being confident in the ability to do self-regulated learning and speaking in the flipped classroom. The data highlighted that the students’ self-confidence in their learning ability was one of the factors in enhancing students’ self-regulated learning and speaking competence. For instance, Xion conveyed his confidence in gradually improving his self-regulated learning and speaking competence through this course. Charlene reported acquiring valuable knowledge and expressed increased confidence in applying what he had learned, anticipating further improvement in his learning. Runny noted enhanced confidence following self-regulated learning, enabling a more concise and comprehensive expression of topics. The supporting evidence is presented below:

I have the confidence that I will gradually improve my self-regulated learning ability and speaking competence through this class. This is also a great achievement for me. (Xion, Interview 3)

Now that I have learned a lot of useful knowledge in this flipped speaking classroom, I feel more and more confident. I have been self-learning English speaking all the time, and the frequency of speaking English speaking is much higher than before. I can immediately apply what I have learned, so I am confident that I will learn better. (Charlene, Interview 3)

I am more confident after self-regulated learning and class learning, and I won’t be afraid to answer when others ask me relevant questions. (Runny, Interview 3)

4.2. Classroom-related factors

4.2.1. Flipped classroom design

When relating to the flipped classroom design, respondents mentioned several aspects that were well aligned, encompassing curriculum design, flexible learning, and classroom environment. The qualitative data depicted that the curriculum design enabled the respondents to make linkages to the online material and reinforced their learning. Jimnah appreciated the strong linkage between online and face-to-face courses, describing the overall design of the flipped classroom as favourable, as well as Zach noted that the convenience of revisiting videos when clarity was needed contributed positively to the design.

I think the combination is very close. Online courses and face-to-face courses, PPT, and content, as well as the content, are highly related. (Jimnah, Interview 1)

I think the overall design of this class is very good. (Jimnah, Reflective Journal 1)

If I can’t understand clearly, I can go back and look at it again. Then there are some not commonly used words, I may think about it, and I may miss one or two sentences, but when I am online, I can go back and rewind it again without missing that sentence. (Zach, Interview 1)

The data further illustrated that the flexible learning offered by the flipped classroom constituted a key element of the classroom design that contributed to the enhancement of students’ self-regulated learning and speaking competence. This approach granted students increased autonomy over their learning environment, time, and procedures, facilitating the practice of resource management aspects inherent to self-regulated learning ultimately leading to enhancements in their self-regulated learning and speaking competence. For instance, Charlene mentioned that when he had a sudden query about a speaking expression, he could promptly revisit the video content, emphasizing that the flipped classroom was efficient and aided in more effective post-class review.

Sometimes when I walk on the road, I suddenly think of a speaking expression, turn out the video to have a look, and spend a few minutes again watching the online video. (Charlene, Interview 1)

I reviewed the courseware on the network according to the teacher’s requirements in advance. I feel that this not only makes the class more labour-saving and efficient but also helps me do a better review after class. (Charlene, Reflective Journal 2)

The respondents also mentioned that the flipped classroom created a relaxed environment where they could speak English freely and were given enough time to think. It was unsurprising that students actively participating in the flipped classroom reported increased opportunities for speaking interaction. Xion mentioned the classroom atmosphere was good, where everyone could communicate without fear of errors, while Chenche described feeling at ease within the flipped classroom.

In addition, the classroom atmosphere is very good. Everyone can speak freely without worrying about making mistakes. (Xion, Reflective Journal 1)

I felt very relaxed and could speak without raising hands. (Chenche, Reflective Journal 1)

4.2.2. Content and materials

The pivotal factors that caused the influence of the flipped classroom on students’ self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence from the perspective of students’ own experiences also include content and materials. There was a variety of positive comments about the quality of learning content and materials provided, which revealed the ways in which this factor contributes to the ability of students to carry out self-regulated learning and speaking. Respondents articulated diverse dimensions of the course materials that impacted their self-regulated learning and speaking competence in the flipped classroom. Notably, Chenche lauded the substantiality of lecture content, emphasizing its accessibility and capacity to augment her repertoire of spoken sentence structures. Yuliya also commended the instructor’s teaching content for its clarity and accessibility.

I think the content of the lecture was very substantial and fruitful. Some content of the first video is what we discussed in the first classroom, but I think the content of the rest part is quite substantial. (Chenche, Interview 1)

The content was easy to understand and could enrich my spoken sentence patterns. (Chenche, Reflective Journal 6)

The teacher’s content was easy to understand. (Yuliya, Reflective Journal 6)

4.2.3. Quality of instructions

Notably, respondents’ self-regulated learning and speaking competence were greatly impacted by the quality of the instruction’s delivery in the face-to-face classroom, which revealed the importance of providing appropriate instructions and guidance in the flipped classroom. The data elucidated a strong emphasis placed by students on the quality of instruction, particularly the pivotal role played by the instructor in the context of the flipped classroom, providing appropriate support. The students’ responses shed light on the multifaceted strategies employed by the instructor to facilitate self-regulated learning and enhance speaking competence in the flipped classroom. For instance, Renald expressed how the instructor created opportunities for independent or group reflection, effectively guiding students toward key learning objectives and concepts. Similarly, Charlene articulated her capacity to independently tackle challenges, leveraging cognitive strategies imparted by the instructor.

The teacher will tell us how to solve the problem and gives us more opportunities to think through group or independent thinking. (Renald, Interview 1)

Through classroom learning, I have the direction and framework of learning, and the teacher also told me what to pay attention to. (Renald, Reflective Journal 6)

I am gradually used to solving all kinds of problems with the way of thinking taught by the teacher. (Charlene, Reflective Journal 3)

5. Discussion

5.1. On student-related factors

The research findings revealed three student-related factors in which the learning style, learning interests, and self-confidence of the student influenced them to carry out self-regulated learning and speaking competence.

Pintrich’s (2000) self-regulated learning model and the concept of students’ learning styles both centre on the approaches students employ and the strategies they employ to attain their learning objectives. Within the context of the flipped classroom, students enjoyed a greater degree of autonomy compared to traditional learning environments, aligning with the assertion made by proponents of flipped instruction regarding its efficacy in catering to a diverse array of student learning preferences (Lage et al., 2000). The flipped classroom structure facilitated the utilization of a wide spectrum of learning styles, thereby augmenting student motivation and engagement with academic content (Mason et al., 2013).

Furthermore, students’ learning interests assume a significant role within Pintrich’s (2000) self-regulated learning model, exerting potential influence on motivation and engagement in this study. In this case, the student’s interest in the flipped classroom served as a catalyst, propelling their motivation and engagement in self-regulated learning and EFL speaking practice, ultimately leading to improved speaking competence. This perspective is consistent with the findings of Schunk (2005), who underscored the positive relationship between interest and self-regulated learning, as well as Al-Harbi and Alshumaimeri (2016), who noted that flipped classrooms tended to stimulate students’ interest in learning, and Leong and Ahmadi (2017), who reported that students’ interests influenced speaking competence.

Self-confidence emerges as another pivotal factor in influencing students’ capacity to actively participate in self-regulated learning and subsequently enhance their competence in spoken English within the flipped classroom. When students possess a high degree of self-confidence in their learning abilities, they are more inclined to assume responsibility for their own learning and engage in self-regulated learning within this study’s context. Conversely, students who lack confidence in their capabilities may be more inclined to rely heavily on the instructor or may even avoid speaking practice altogether. This is in line with Pintrich’s (2000) study, which suggested that students who have high self-confidence are more likely to be motivated and engaged in their learning. This finding also resonated with previous studies underscoring that students tend to become more effective learners in a flipped classroom given that this classroom mode has been associated with the elevation of students’ self-confidence levels and increased participation in class activities (Basal, 2015; Kang, 2015; McLaughlin et al, 2013).

The research results also aligned with previous studies that students in the flipped classroom get involved in all class discussions, activities, and tasks using English, which could boost their self-confidence, enhance their motivation, and promote their EFL speaking (Uztosun, 2020; Zhang et al., 2020). Similarly, a group of academics advocates that a flipped classroom serves as an inspiration and confidence-building platform for students aiming to cultivate their EFL speaking competence (Engin & Donanci, 2016; Loucky, 2017; Teng, 2018). The deployment of the flipped classroom was associated with a noteworthy increase in students’ self-confidence levels pertaining to their EFL speaking competence, as documented in the study by Abdullah et al. (2021).

5.2. On classroom-related factors

The research findings also revealed three classroom-related factors in which the design, content and materials, and quality of instructions of the flipped classroom influenced the experiences of students and their ability to carry out self-regulated learning and speaking competence.

The discovery that factors related to students and those related to the classroom exerted interconnected influences on students’ self-regulated learning and speaking competence aligns with Zimmerman (1989, 2000), who argued that personal factors do not act in isolation but are influenced by and interact with external environmental factors, and he also emphasized the distinctive yet interdependent roles of personal attributes, behavioral factors, and environmental influences. These concepts are particularly evident in the resource management component of Pintrich’s (2000) model of self-regulated learning, which underscores the importance of the ability to effectively manage one’s external learning environment. Furthermore, this finding resonated with Bandura’s (1991) proposition that human functioning is regulated through a dynamic interplay between internally generated and externally sourced influences.

The flipped classroom design could facilitate self-regulated learning by providing students with greater control over their learning experience. Through pre-class content access, students were empowered to engage in self-paced learning activities, revisit materials as needed, and partake in flexible classroom interactions. This approach fostered the cultivation of self-regulated learning. These findings were congruent with prior research indicating that the flipped classroom enables students to assume greater responsibility for their learning progress (Goodwin & Miller, 2013; Zainuddin & Halili, 2016). Additionally, the inherent nature of the flipped classroom, particularly the advantage of pre-class online video content, enables students to tailor their learning pace to their individual needs (Fulton, 2012). They have the flexibility to revisit unfamiliar content, skip through already mastered material, or fast-forward through sections, enhancing their overall learning experience (Li, 2015).

Furthermore, by utilizing class time for practical application and practice exercises, students had more opportunities to interact with their peers, which was conducive to the development of speaking skills and the nurturing of self-confidence. As noted by Wu et al. (2017), the integration of interactive learning activities within flipped classrooms holds the potential to enhance students’ competence in spoken language. Participants exhibited a proclivity for collaborative endeavours with their peers during classroom activities, as elucidated by Teng (2018). In addition, the flipped classroom could promote a more flexible and student-centred learning environment, which was particularly beneficial for students with different learning styles and preferences.

Notably, the specific content and materials provided in the flipped classroom were also found to have an important influence on students’ experience. The findings highlighted the pivotal role of delivering high-quality content and materials to facilitate self-regulated learning and speaking. All the students expressed favourable opinions regarding the standard and user-friendliness of the instructional materials provided to them. Nonetheless, it is imperative to emphasize the importance of maintaining a seamless connection between online learning content and in-class activities, as this linkage is paramount for the success of the flipped classroom (Galway et al., 2015). This point is relevant to both traditional and flipped classrooms. However, it could also be argued that in the context of the flipped classroom, the utilization of resources that stimulated students’ interest and motivation was especially important in the absence of the motivating or encouraging presence of the instructor during self-regulated learning at home.

It is also important to ensure that the support provided by the instructor is of a high standard. The role of the instructor in the flipped classroom constitutes the third classroom-related factor identified as exerting an influence on self-regulated learning and speaking competence. Although the role of the instructor in a flipped classroom was more concerned with facilitating learning by understanding students’ needs and facilitating their participation in in-depth learning activities for knowledge construction (Hung, 2017) than providing direct instruction, their significance remains pronounced in ensuring that students comprehend the instructional content and furnishing constructive feedback on their coursework. This perspective aligned with the findings of Teng’s research (2018), which indicated that spoken language classes can be transformed through the shift from passive to active learning, with university instructors assuming a pivotal role in facilitating students’ engagement with speaking activities.

6. Implications

The findings of this research hold substantial pedagogical and learning implications. By taking a close look at students’ self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence in the flipped classroom, this interpretative qualitative study identified some key factors that contribute to the influence of the flipped classroom. Situated in the Chinese EFL context, this study provides invaluable insights into the applicability of Pintrich’s (2000) self-regulated learning model, substantiating it with empirical evidence showcasing the multifaceted influence of both student-related and classroom-related factors on the relationship between the flipped classroom and students’ self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence. Notably, it prompts a comprehensive reevaluation of the compatibility between Pintrich’s (2000) model and this distinct learning environment, shedding light on the efficacy of the flipped classroom in fostering self-regulated learning and enhancing EFL speaking competence.

Drawing upon previous studies, and informed by the current research findings, the researcher proposed a framework of the flipped classroom for students, aiming at enhancing students’ self-regulated learning and proficiency in EFL speaking (refer to Figure 2). As Figure 2 illustrates, the framework encompasses all the essential components required to leverage the flipped classroom’s potential in advancing students’ self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence. It is incorporated with self-regulated learning phases for the following three considerations: (1) Tailored online learning content: the framework provides a learning structure equipped with online educational content tailored to the specific needs of students; (2) Classroom interaction: it amplifies the classroom-based learning process by fostering increased interaction, expression, and communication among students; (3) Strengthened linkage: it reinforces the connection between in-classroom learning experiences and self-regulated learning activities. In this framework of the flipped classroom, students are highly motivated to fulfil various self-regulated learning tasks and speaking exercises, thus considerably resulting in a substantial enhancement of their self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence.

Figure 2. Proposed flipped classroom framework.

In addition to enriching the existing literature on the influence of the flipped classroom on students’ self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence. The research findings can also be thought-provoking for EFL students, instructors, educators, policymakers, course designers and any stakeholders to highlight enhancing students’ self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence in future flipped classrooms, especially for those students who inherently exhibit independence in their learning and have already cultivated a substantial set of self-regulated learning aptitudes, the flipped classroom can be a very positive learning environment for enhancing EFL speaking competence. For individuals who may not possess self-regulated learning to the same extent, there may be a need to learn or build self-regulated learning skills in order to take advantage of the potential benefits of this environment.

It is recommended that future studies delve into the perspectives of instructors to gain a comprehensive understanding of how the flipped classroom influences educators, the challenges faced by instructors instructing in the context of a speaking flipped classroom, and the experiences of instructors in implementing such courses. Acknowledging instructor views could provide valuable insights for refining the flipped classroom approach for enhanced effectiveness in future implementations.

Furthermore, it is advisable for future research to employ quantitative research methodologies or mixed methods approaches to quantitatively assess self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence within a flipped classroom environment utilizing the proposed flipped classroom framework. This should be undertaken across a diverse spectrum of learning contexts and with distinct student groups, including those with varying levels of English foundation, and the findings can also be compared with those of other previous studies of the flipped classroom. This can be used to design a flipped classroom that optimizes positive learning outcomes for all students. Such information is essential for shaping best practices in the realm of flipped classrooms and for elucidating the necessary adaptations or tailoring required to meet the unique needs of diverse student populations and educational settings.

7. Conclusion

This study embarked on a pursuit of exploring pivotal factors that caused the influence of the flipped classroom on students’ self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence from the perspective of first-year university students in an English-speaking flipped classroom at a university in China with an interpretative qualitative study. The findings illuminated notable enhancements in students’ speaking competence as a result of their participation in the flipped classroom. In addition, the study shed light on the pivotal factors underpinning the influence of the flipped classroom on students’ self-regulated learning and speaking competence. Notably, the research has sought to provide new insights into the ways that self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence occur in a higher education flipped classroom with a proposed flipped classroom framework.

Ethical approval

The researcher ensured that the study adhered to the principles outlined in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical approval was obtained from the official Ethics Committee, known as the Jawatankuasa Etika Penyelidikan Manusia (JEPeM), at Universiti Sains Malaysia (Ethical code: USM/JEPeM/22010059). To ascertain the voluntary and informed participation of each respondent in this research, written informed consent was obtained prior to their involvement. Also written consent for the publication of study materials was secured, confirming the respondents’ agreement to the dissemination of study findings without revealing their identities.

Acknowledgements

The author contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Disclosure statement

The author declares no potential conflicts of interest regarding the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data availability statement

Original data related to the current study can be obtained by making a reasonable request to the corresponding author.

Additional information

Funding

There was no specific grant received for this research from any of the funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-profit sectors.

Notes on contributors

Linling Zhong

Linling Zhong, a PhD graduate in English language education program at Universiti Sains Malaysia, an EFL lecturer at School of Humanities & Foreign Languages, Zhejiang Shuren University, and the author of this study. The responsibilities in this study included writing, revising, and editing.

APPENDIX A:

Reflective Journal Protocol

Thank you for giving me the time to write your reflective journal. Your participation in this study is voluntary. Your identity and all study documentation will be kept in strict confidence. There are no foreseeable risks or discomforts to your involvement. In the following twelve weeks, you will be asked to write six reflective journals altogether. There is no word limit. As you write in your course journal, consider the following aspects to guide your thinking or points you may consider writing about. 1. What were your self-regulated learning performance and EFL speaking performance in this week’s flipped classroom (including online and face-to-face)? 2. During these two weeks, while doing the online learning/ face-to-face learning, what sort of challenging assignment or learning materials did you encounter? How did you deal with them? 3. What did you do to understand and complete the after-class EFL speaking assignment? 4. What aspects did you think you have done well, and what parts needed to be improved during the flipped classroom? 5. To what degree did you become a self-regulated learner in this unit (you can list what self-regulated learning you have done during these two weeks)? 6. To what degree did you enhance your EFL speaking competence? In what ways?

APPENDIX B:

In-depth Interview Protocol 1

Time: Date: Place: Interviewer: Interviewee (Pseudonym): Interview Introduction We are starting at (time), so we can expect to be finished by (time). This interview will take 45 minutes in total. As covered in the consent form provided to you, this interview will be recorded and transcribed. Your participation in this study is voluntary. Your identity and all study documentation will be kept in strict confidence. There are no foreseeable risks or discomforts to your involvement. 1. What were your expectations for self-regulated learning and speaking competence of this IELTS flipped classroom when you decided to take it? What are your first impressions of the student-centered flipped classroom? 2. Could you describe the classroom routine and especially what you do this month? 3. What opportunities were available for you to work in groups or work individually? How did you do the speaking interaction with your peers or instructors? 4. How do the online learning and face-to-face classes flip together in this unit? Do you prefer one or the other? Why? Was your self-regulated learning and speaking competence different because of the instructional approach? 5. What flipped classroom activities (including online and face-to-face) helped self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence? How (using specific example/ examples)? 6. What were the issues that you struggled with being a self-regulated student and enhancing your EFL speaking competence? Now we come to the end of the interview. Thank you very much for attending this interview.

APPENDIX C:

In-depth Interview Protocol 2

Time: Date: Place: Interviewer: Interviewee (Pseudonym): 1. Have there been any changes to your self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence since the last time we talked? How and why? 2. What aspects of the flipped classroom have helped or could have helped you self-regulated learning and enhance your EFL speaking competence? 3. Can you describe to me what aspects of the flipped classroom approach in this unit helped you be more self-regulated in learning? Did you have any difficulties in being self-regulated? 4. What influence (positive or negative) do you think the flipped classroom approach has had on your self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence this semester? Why? 5. How do you think you can improve your future self-regulated learning and EFL speaking competence after the flipped classroom? 6. What suggestions would you give to the flipped classroom designer to better meet your self-regulated learning needs and EFL speaking competence needs? Now we come to the end of the interview. Please feel free to contact me if any questions or issues arise. Again, thank you so much for your contribution.