1,002
Views
94
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original

Cortisol: The Culprit Prenatal Stress Variable

&
Pages 1181-1205 | Received 08 Nov 2007, Published online: 07 Jul 2009

REFERENCES

  • Allolio B., Hoffman J., Linton W., Winkelmann W., Kusche M., Schulte H. Diurnal salivary cortisol patterns during pregnancy and after delivery: Relationship to plasma corticotropin-releasing hormone. Clinical Endocrinology 1990; 33: 279–289
  • Altemus M., Redwine L., Leong Y., Frye C., Porges S., Carter C. Responses to laboratory psychosocial stress in postpartum women. Psychosomatic Medicine 2001; 63: 814–821
  • Antonow-Schlorke I., Schwab M., Li C., Nathanielsz P. Glucocorticoid exposure at the dose used clinically alters cytoskeletal proteins and presynaptic terminals in the fetal baboon brain. Journal of Physiology 2003; 547: 117–123
  • Arborelius L., Owens M., Plotsky P., Nemeroff C. The role of corticotropin-releasing factor in depression and anxiety disorders. Journal of Endocrinology 1999; 160: 1–12
  • Barker D. Fetal programming of coronary heart disease. Trends of Endocrinology Metabolism 2002; 13: 364–368
  • Bartels M., Van den Berg M., Sluyter F., Boomsma D., de Geus E. Heritability of cortisol levels: Review and simultaneous analysis of twin studies. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2003; 28: 121–137
  • Becker J. B., Breedlove S. M., Crews D., McCarthy M. M. Behavioral endocrinology. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA 2002
  • Challis D., Sloboda D., Mathews S., Holloway A., Alfaidy N., Patel F., Whittle W., Frase M., Moss T., Newnham M. The fetal placental hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, parturition and postnatal health. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 2001; 185: 135–144
  • Charmandari E., Kino T., Souvatzoglou E., Chrousos G. Pediatric stress: Hormonal mediators and human development. Hormone Research 2003; 59: 161–179
  • Chrousos G., Gold P. The concepts of stress and stress disorders. Journal of American Medical Association 1992; 267: 1244–1252
  • Coe C., Kramer M., Kirschbaum C., Netter P., Fuchs E. Prenantal stress diminishes the cytokine response of leukocytes to endotoxin stimulation in juvenile rhesus monkeys. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2002; 87: 675–681
  • Copper R. L., Goldenberg R. L., Das A., Elder N., Swain M., Norman G., Ramsey R., Cotroneo P., Collins B.A., Johnson F., Jones P., Meier A.M. The preterm prediction study: Maternal stress is associated with spontaneous preterm birth at less than thirty-five weeks’ gestation. National Institue of Child Health and Human Development Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units Network. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 1996; 175: 1286–1292
  • de Kloet E. R. Hormones, brain and stress. Endocrine Regulations 2003; 37: 51–68
  • de Weerth C., Buitelaar J. Physiological stress reactivity in human pregnancy—a review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 2005; 29: 295–312
  • de Weerth C., van Hees Y., Buitelaar J. Prenatal maternal cortisol levels and infant behavior during the first 5 months. Early Human Development 2003; 74: 139–151
  • Diego M. A., Jones N. A., Field T., Hernandez-Reif M., Schanberg S., Kuhn C., Gonzalez-Garcia A. Maternal psychological distress, prenatal cortisol and fetal weight. Psychosomatic Medicine 2006; 68: 747–753
  • Dieter J., Field T., Hernandez-Reif M., Jones N.A., Lecanuet J.P., Salman F.A., Redzepi M. Materal depression and increased fetal activity. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 2001; 21: 468–473
  • Dugoff L., Lynch A. M., Cioffi-Ragan D., Hobbins J. C., Schultz L. K., Malone F. D., D’Alton M. E. FASTER Trial Research Consortium. First trimester uterine artery Doppler abnormalities predict subsequent intrauterine growth restriction. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2005; 193: 1208–1212
  • Federenko I., Nagamine M., Hellhammer D., Wadhwa P., Wüst S. The heritability of hypothalmic pituitary adrenal axis responses to psychosocial stress is context dependent. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2004; 89: 6244–6250
  • Feldman P., Dunkel-Schetter C., Sandman C., Wadhwa P. Maternal social support predicts birth weight and fetal growth in human pregnancy. Psychosomatic Medicine 2000; 62: 715–725
  • Field T., Diego M., Dieter J., Hernandez-Reif M., Schanberg S., Kuhn C., Yando R., Bendell D. Prenatal depression effects on the fetus and the newborn. Infant Behavior & Development 2004a; 27: 216–229
  • Field T., Diego M., Hernandez-Reif M., Figueiredo B., Schanberg S., Kuhn C., Deeds O., Contogeorgos J., Ascencio A. Chronic prenatal depression and neonatal outcome. International Journal of Neuroscience 2008; 118: 95–103
  • Field T., Diego M., Hernandez-Reif M., Gil K., Vera Y. Prenatal maternal cortisol, fetal activity and growth. International Journal of Neuroscience 2005a; 115: 423–429
  • Field T., Diego M., Hernandez-Reif M., Schanberg S., Kuhn C. Massage therapy effects on depressed pregnant women. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynecology 2004b; 25: 115–122
  • Field T., Diego M., Hernandez-Reif M., Schanberg S., Kuhn C., Yando R., Bendell D. Pregnancy anxiety and comorbid depression and anger: Effects on the fetus and neonate. Depression and Anxiety 2003; 17: 140–151
  • Field T., Diego M., Hernandez-Reif M., Vera Y., Gil K., Schanberg S., Kuhn C., Gonzalez-Garcia A. Prenatal maternal biochemistry predicts neonatal biochemistry. International Journal of Neuroscience 2004c; 114: 981–993
  • Field T., Grizzle N., Scafidi F., Schanberg S. Massage and relaxation therapies’ effects on depressed adolescent mothers. Adolescence 1996; 31: 903–911
  • Field T., Hernandez-Reif M., Diego M., Figueiredo B., Schanberg S., Kuhn C. Prenatal cortisol, prematurity and low birthweight. Infant Behavior and Development 2006; 29: 268–275
  • Field T., Hernandez-Reif M., Diego M., Schanberg S., Kuhn C. Cortisol decreases and serotonin and dopamine increase following massage therapy. International Journal of Neuroscience 2005b; 115: 1397–1413
  • Frishman W. H., Schlocker S. J., Awad K., Tejani N. Pathophysiology and medical management of systemic hypertension in pregnancy. Cardiology Review 2005; 13: 274–284
  • Girod J.P., Brotman D.J. Does altered glucocorticoid homeostasis increase cardiovascular risk?. Cardiovascular Research 2004; 64: 217–226
  • Gitau R., Cameron A., Fisk N., Glover V. Fetal exposure to maternal cortisol. The Lancet 1998; 352: 707–708
  • Gitau R., Fisk N. M., Glover V. Human fetal and maternal corticotropin releasing hormone responses to acute stress. Archives of Diseases in Childhood, Fetal Neonatal Edition 2004; 89: F29–32
  • Gitau R., Fisk N., Cameron A., Glover V. Fetal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal stress responses to invasive procedures are independent of maternal responses. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2001; 86: 104–109
  • Glover V., Teixeira J., Gitau R., Fisk N. Mechanisms by which maternal mood in pregnancy may affect the fetus. Contemporary Review of Obstetrics and Gynecology 1999; 20: 1–6
  • Graham Y., Heim C., Goodman S., Miller A., Nemeroff C. The effects of neonatal stress on brain development: Implications for psychopathology. Developmental Psychophathology 1999; 11: 545–565
  • Grossi G., Perski A., Lundberg U., Soares J. Associations between financial strain and the diurnal salivary cortisol secretion of long-term unemployed individuals. Integrative Physiological and Behavioral Science 2001; 36: 205–219
  • Gutteling B., de Weerth C., Buitelaar J. Prenatal stress and children's cortisol reaction to the first day of school. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2005; 30: 541–549
  • Hadoke P. W., Macdonald L., Logie J. J., Small G. R., Dover A. R., Walker B. R. Intra-vascular glucocorticoid metabolism as a modulator of vascular structure and function. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 2006; 63: 565–578
  • Hansen D., Lou H., Olsen J. Serious life events and congenital malformations: A national study with complete follow-up. Lancet 2000; 356: 875–880
  • Heim C., Nemeroff C. B. The role of childhood trauma in the neurobiology of mood and anxiety disorders: Preclinical and clinical studies. Biological Psychiatry 2001; 49: 1023–1039
  • Huang W., Harper S., Evans S., Newnham J., Dunlop S. Repeated prenatal corticosteroid administration delays astrocyte and capillary tight junction maturation in fetal sheep. International Journal of Development and Neuroscience 2001a; 19: 487–493
  • Huang W., Harper S., Evans S., Newnham J., Dunlop S. Repeated prenatal corticosteroids administration delays myelination of the corpus callosum in fetal sheep. International Journal of Development and Neuroscience 2001b; 19: 415–425
  • Huizink A., Mulder E., Buitelaar J. Prenatal stress and risk for psychopathology: Specific effects or induction of general susceptibility?. Psychology Bulletin 2004; 130: 115–142
  • Jones S.A., Brooks A.N., Challis J.R. Steroids modulate corticotrophin-releasing hormone production in human fetal membranes and placental. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 1989; 68: 825–830
  • Kajantie E., Phillips D., Andersson S., Barker D., Dunkel L., Forsen T., Osmond C., Tuominen J., Wood P., Ericksson J. Size at birth, gestational age and cortisol secretion in adult life: Foetal programming of both hyper and hypocortisolism?. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2002; 57: 635–641
  • Kanaley J., Hartman M. Cortisol and growth hormone responses to exercise. Endocrinologist 2002; 12: 421–432
  • Kandel E. R., Schwartz J. H., Jessell T. M. Principles of Neuroscience, 4th. McGraw-Hill, New York 2000
  • Kapoor A., Dunn E., Kostaki A., Andrews M. H., Matthews S. G. Fetal programming of hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal function: Prenatal stress and glucocorticoids. Journal of Physiology 2006; 572: 31–44
  • Kent A., Hughes P., Ormerod L., Jones G., Thilaganathan B. Uterine artery resistance and anxiety in the second trimester of pregnancy. Ultrasound Obstetrics and Gynecology 2002; 19: 177–179
  • Knoches A., Doyle L. Long term outcome of infants born preterm. Bailliere's Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology 1993; 7: 633–651
  • Knuist M., Bonsel G. J., Zondervan H. A., Treffers P. E. Risk factors for preeclampsia in nulliparous women in distinct ethnic groups: A prospective cohort study. Obstetrics and Gynecology 1998; 92: 1748
  • Koehl M., Darnaudéry M., Dulluc J., Van Reeth O., Le Moal M., Maccari S. Prenatal stress alters circadian activity of hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis and hippocampal corticosteroid receptors in adult rats of both gender. Journal of Neurobiology 1999; 40: 302–315
  • Leung T.N., Chung T.K., Madsen G., Lam P.K., Sahota D., Smith R. Rate of rise in maternal plasma corticotrophin-releasing hormone and its relation to gestational length. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology 2001; 108: 527–532
  • Levine J., Cole D.P., Chengappa K.N., Gershon S. Anxiety disorders and major depression, together or apart. Depress Anxiety 2001; 14: 94–104
  • Levitt N., Lambert E., Woods D., Hales C., Andrew R., Seckl J. Impaired glucose tolerance and elevated blood pressure in low birth weight, nonobese, young south African adults: Early programming of cortisol axis. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2000; 85: 4611–4618
  • Liu L., Matthews S. G. Adrenocortical response profiles to corticotropin-releasing hormone and adrenocorticotropin challenge in the chronically catheterized adult guinea pig. Experimental Physiology 1999; 84: 971–977
  • Liu L., Li A., Matthews S. G. Maternal glucocorticoid treatment programs HPA regulation in adult offspring: Sex-specific effects. American Journal of Physiological Endocrinology and Metabolism 2001; 280: E729–739
  • Lommatzsch M., Hornych K., Zingler C., Schuff-Werner P., Hoppner J., Virchow J. C. Maternal serum concentrations of BDNF and depression in the perinatal period. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2006; 31: 388–394
  • Lundy B., Jones N., Field T., Nearing G., Davalos M., Pietro P., Schanberg S., Kuhn C. Prenatal depression effects on neonates. Infant Behavior and Development 1999; 22: 121–137
  • Magiakou M., Mastorakos G., Rabin D., Margioris A., Dubbert B., Calogero T., Tsigos C., Munson P., Chrousos G. The maternal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in the third trimester of human pregnancy. Clinical Endocrinology 1996; 44: 419–428
  • Makino S., Hashimoto K., Gold P. Multiple feedback mechanisms activating corticotropin-releasing hormone system in the brain during stress. Pharmacology and Biochemical Behavior 2002; 73: 147–158
  • Mastorakos G., Ilias I. Maternal and fetal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axes during pregnancy and postpartum. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 2003; 997: 136–149
  • Mathews S. Antenatal glucorticoids and programming of the developing CNS. Pediatric Research 2000; 47: 291–300
  • McCool W., Dorn L., Susman N. The relation of cortisol reactivity and anxiety to perinatal outcome in primiparous adolescents. Research in Nursing and Health 1994; 17: 411–420
  • McEwen B. The neurobiology of stress: From serendipity to clinical relevance. Brain Research 2000; 886: 172–189
  • Meaney M., Aitken D., Sharman S., Viau V. Basal ACTH, corticosterone and corticosterone-binding globulin levels over the diurnal cycle, and age-related changes in hippocampal type I and type II corticosteroid receptor binding capacity in young and aged, handled and nonhandled rats. Neuroendocrinology 1992; 55: 204–213
  • Nemeroff C. B. Psychopharmacology of affective disorders in the 21st century. Biological Psychiatry 1998; 44: 517–525
  • Nemeroff C.B. New directions in the development of antidepressants: the interface of neurobiology and psychiatry. Human Psychopharmacology 2002; 17: S-13–16
  • Nemeroff C., Widerlov E., Bissette G., Walleus H., Karlsson I., Eklund K., Kilts C., Loosen P., Vale W. Elevated concentrations of CSF corticotropin-releasing factor-like immunoreactivity in depressed patients. Science 1984; 226: 1342–1344
  • Nepomnaschy P., Welch K., McConnell D., Low B., Strassmann B., England B. Cortisol levels and very early pregnancy loss in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2006; 103: 3938–3942
  • Obel C., Hedegaard M., Henriksen T., Secher N., Olsen J., Levine S. Stress and salivary cortisol during pregnancy. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2005; 30: 647–656
  • Orr S. T., James S. A., Blackmore-Prince C. Maternal prenatal depressive symptoms and spontaneous preterm births among African-American women in Baltimore, Maryland. American Journal of Epidemiology 2002; 156: 797–802
  • Padgett D., Glaser R. How stress influences the immune response. Trends in Immunology 2003; 24: 444–448
  • Peleg D., Munsick R.A., Diker D., Goldman J.A., Ben-Jonathan N. Distribution of catecholamines between fetal and maternal compartment during human pregnancy with emphasis on L-dopa and dopamine. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 1986; 62: 911–914
  • Pepe G. J., Albrecht E. D. Actions of placental and fetal adrenal steroid hormones in primate pregnancy. Endocrine Reviews 1995; 16: 608–648
  • Peterson B., Vohr B., Staib L., Cannistraci C., Dolberg A., Schneider K., Katz K., Westerveld M., Sparrow S., Anderson A., Ducan C., Makuch R., Gore J., Ment L. Regional brain volume abnormalities and long-term cognitive outcome in preterm infants. Journal of American Medical Association 2000; 284: 1939–1947
  • Petraglia F., Sutton S., Vale W. Neurotransmitters and peptides modulate the release of immunoreactive corticotropin releasing factor from cultured human placental cells. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 1989; 160: 247–251
  • Phillips D., Walker B., Reynolds R., Flanagan D., Wood P., Osmond C., Barker D., Whorwood C. Low birth weight predicts elevated plasma cortisol concentrations in adults from 3 populations. Hypertension 2000; 35: 1301–1306
  • Plante G. E. Depression and cardiovascular disease: A reciprocal relationship. Metabolism 2005; 54: 45–48
  • Ponirakis A., Susman E., Stifter C. Negative emotionality and cortisol during adolescent pregnancy and its effects on infant health and autonomic nervous system reactivity. Developmental Psychobiology 1997; 33: 163–174
  • Powell L., Lovallo W., Mathews K., Meyer P., Midgley A., Baum A., Stone A., Underwood L., McCann J., Janikula H., Ory M. Physiologic markers of chronic stress in premenopausal, middle-aged women. Psychosomatic Medicine 2002; 64: 639–644
  • Radloff L. S. The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Journal of Applied Psychological Measures 1977; 1: 385–401
  • Reynolds R., Walker B., Syddall R., Andrew R., Wood P., Whorwood C., Phillips D. Altered control of cortisol secretion in adult men with low birth weight and cardiovascular risk factors. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology 2001; 86: 245–250
  • Rotmensh S., Celentano C., Liberati M., Sadan O., Glezerman M. The effect of antenatal steroid administration on the fetal response to vibroacoustic stimulation. Acta Obstetrics and Gynecology 1999; 78: 847–851
  • Sandman C., Glynn L., Dunkel Shetter C., Wadhwa P., Garite T., Chicz-DeMet A., Hobel C. Elevated maternal cortisol early in pregnancy predicts third trimester levels of placental corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH): Priming the placental clock. Peptides 2006; 6: 1457–63
  • Sandman C., Wadhwa P., Chicz-DeMet A., Porto M., Garite T. Maternal corticotropin-releasing hormone and habituation in the human fetus. Development and Psychobiology 1999a; 34: 163–173
  • Sandman C. A., Wadhwa P., Glynn L., Chicz-Demet A., Porto M., Garite T. J. Corticotropin-releasing hormone and fetal responses in human pregnancy. Annals of New York Academy of Science 1999b; 897: 66–75
  • Schanberg S., Field T. Sensory deprivation stress and supplemental stimulation in the rat pup and preterm human neonate. Child Development 1987; 58: 1431–1447
  • Scott E., McGarrigle H., Lachelin G. The increase in plasma and saliva cortisol levels in pregnancy is not due to the increase in corticosteroid-binding globulin levels. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1990; 71: 639–644
  • Seckl J. Glucocorticoid programming of the fetus; adult phenotypes and molecular mechanism. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 2001; 185: 61–71
  • Seckl J., Urizar G., Milazzo M., Le H., Delucchi K., Sotelo R., Muñoz R. Impact of stress reduction instructions on stress and cortisol levels during pregnancy. Biological Psychology 2004; 67: 275–282
  • Seely E. W., Lindheimer M. D. Pathophysiology of preeclampsia. Hypertension primer3rd, J. L. Izzo, H. R. Black. American Heart Association, Dallas, TX 2003; 26–32
  • Sjostrom K., Valentin L., Thelin T., Marsal K. Maternal anxiety in late pregnancy and fetal hemodynamics. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Biology 1997; 74: 149–155
  • Smith R. Alterations in the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis during pregnancy and the placental clock that determines the length of parturition. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology 1998; 39: 215–220
  • Smith R., Thomson M. Neuroendocrinlogy of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis in pregnancy and the puerperium. Bailliere's Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1991; 5: 167–186
  • Spielberger C. STAXI-2: State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2: Professional manual. Psychological Assessment Resources, Odessa, FL 1999
  • Spielberg C., Gorsuch R. L., Lushene R. E. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto, CA 1970
  • Steele S. C., Warren A. Y., Johnson I. R. Effect of the vascular endothelium on norepinephrine-induced contractions in uterine radial arteries from the nonpregnant and pregnant human uterus. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 1993; 168: 1623–1628
  • Takahashi L. K., Turner J. G., Kalin N. H. Prolonged stress-induced elevation in plasma corticosterone during pregnancy in the rat: Implications for prenatal stress studies. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1998; 23: 571–581
  • Tchirikov M., Rybakowski C., Huneke B., Schoder V., Schroder H. J. Umbilical vein blood volume flow rate and umbilical artery pulsatility as ‘venous-arterial index’ in the prediction of neonatal compromise. Ultrasound Obstetrics and Gynecology 2002; 20: 580–585
  • Teixeira J., Fisk N., Glover V. Association between maternal anxiety in pregnancy and increased uterine artery resistance index: Cohort based study. British Medical Journal 1999; 318: 153–157
  • Urizar G.G., Jr., Milazzo M., Le Delucchi H.N., Sotelo K. R., Muñoz R.F. Impact of stress reduction instructions on stress and cortisol levels during pregnancy. Biological Psychology 2004; 67: 275–282
  • Walker E. F., Diforio D. Schizophrenia: A neural diathesis-stress model. Psychological Review 1997; 104: 667–685
  • Weinstock M. Alterations induced by gestational stress in brain morphology and behaviour of the offspring. Progress in Neurobiology 2001; 65: 427–451
  • Weinstock M. The potential influence of maternal stress hormones on development and mental health of the offspring. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity 2005; 19: 296–308
  • Welberg L., Seckl J. Prenatal stress, glucocorticoids and the programming of the brain. Journal of Neuroendocrinology 2001; 13: 113–128
  • Wüst S., Federenko I., Hellhammer D., Kirschbaum C. Genetic factors, perceived chronic stress, and the free cortisol response to awakening. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2000; 25: 707–720
  • Wüst S., Entringer S., Federenko I., Schlotz W., Hellhammer D. Birth weight is associated with salivary cortisol responses to psychosocial stress in adult life. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2005a; 30: 592–598
  • Wüst S., Federenko I., van Rossum E., Koper J., Hellhammer D. Habituation of cortisol responses to repeated psychosocial stress-further characterization and impact of genetic factors. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2005b; 30: 199–211
  • Xiao D. L., Huang X. H., Pearce W. J., Longo L. D., Zhang L. Effect of cortisol on norepinephrine-mediated contractions in ovine uterine arteries. American Journal of Physiology: Heart and Circulatory Physiology 2003; 284: H1142–H1151
  • Yousif M. H., Chandrasekhar B., Kadavil E. A., Oriowo M. A. Noradrenaline-induced vasoconstriction in the uterine vascular bed of pregnant rats chronically treated with L-NAME: Role of prostanoids. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 2003; 42: 428–435
  • Zuckerman B., Amaro H., Bauchner H., Cabral H. Depressive symptoms during pregnancy: relationship to poor health behaviors. American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology 1989; 160: 1107–1111

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.