Romeo & Juliet Laws: Investigating UK Public Perceptions of Young Consensual Sex and the Effects of Age Gaps and Perpetrator and Respondent Gender

References

• Benjamini, Y., & Hochberg, Y. (1995). Controlling the false discovery rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society B, 57(1), 289–300. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x
   Google Scholar
• Bierie, D. M., & Budd, K. M. (2016). Romeo, Juliet, and statutory rape. Sexual Abuse, 30(3), 296–321. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063216658451
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brennan, S., & Epp, J. (2014). Children’s rights, well-being, and sexual agency. In A. Bagattini & C. Macleod (Eds.), The nature of children’s well-being: Theory and practice (pp. 227–246). Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Callander, I. (2019). Regulating consensual sexual behaviour between older children: The case against the current approach under the Sexual Offences (Scotland) Act 2009. Edinburgh Law Review, 23(2), 177–203. https://doi.org/10.3366/elr.2019.0548
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaffin, M., Chenoweth, S., & Letourneau, E. J. (2016). Same-sex and race-based disparities in statutory rape arrests. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 31(1), 26–48. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514555132
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chalmers, J. (2011). Regulating adolescent sexuality: English and Scottish approaches compared. Child and Family Law Quarterly, 23(4), 450–464.
   Google Scholar
• Clements, H., Dawson, D. L., & Das Nair, R. (2014). Female-perpetrated sexual abuse: A review of victim and professional perspectives. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 20(2), 197–215. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552600.2013.798690
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, T. (2013, November 18). Prime Minister swiftly rejects top health experts call to reduce age of consent to 15. MailOnline. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2508665/Prime-Minister-swiftly-rejects-health-experts-lower-age-consent-15.html
   Google Scholar
• Comartin, E. B., Kernsmith, P. D., & Kernsmith, R. M. (2014). Identifying appropriate sanctions for youth sexual behavior: The impact of age, gender, and sexual orientation. New Criminal Law Review, 17(4), 652–672. https://doi.org/10.1525/nclr.2014.17.4.652
   Google Scholar
• Cortoni, F., Babchishin, K. M., & Rat, C. (2017). The proportion of sexual offenders who are female is higher than thought: A meta-analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 44(2), 145–162. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854816658923
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crawford, S. D., Couper, M. P., & Lamias, M. J. (2001). Web surveys: Perceptions of burden. Social Science Computer Review, 19(2), 146–162. https://doi.org/10.1177/089443930101900202
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crighton, D. A., & Towl, G. J. (2015). Forensic psychology. John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) Act. (2017). Irish statute book. Criminal law (Sexual Offences) Act 2017. Retrieved August, 2021, from http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/2017/act/2/enacted/en/print#sec17
   Google Scholar
• Crown Prosecution Service. (2021). Rape and sexual offences – chapter 7: Key legislation and offences: Legal guidance, Sexual Offences. https://www.cps.gov.uk/legal-guidance/rape-and-sexual-offences-chapter-7-key-legislation-and-offences
   Google Scholar
• Crown Prosecution Service. (2022). CPS data summary quarter 1 2022–2023. https://www.cps.gov.uk/publication/cps-data-summary-quarter-1-2022-2023
   Google Scholar
• Cubellis, M. A., Evans, D. N., & Fera, A. G. (2019). Sex offender stigma: An exploration of vigilantism against sex offenders. Deviant Behavior, 40(2), 225–239. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2017.1420459
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davies, M., & Rogers, P. (2006). Perceptions of male victims in depicted sexual assaults: A review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 11(4), 367–377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2006.01.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denov, M. S. (2003). The myth of innocence: Sexual scripts and the recognition of child sexual abuse by female perpetrators. The Journal of Sex Research, 40(3), 303–314. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490309552195
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doerner, J. K., & Demuth, S. (2010). The independent and joint effects of race/ethnicity, gender, and age on sentencing outcomes in US federal courts. Justice Quarterly, 27(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820902926197
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dollar, K. M., Perry, A. R., Fromuth, M. E., & Holt, A. R. (2004). Influence of gender roles on perceptions of teacher/adolescent student sexual relations. Sex Roles, 50(1), 91–101. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000011075.91908.98
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Essack, Z., & Toohey, J. (2018). Unpacking the 2-year age-gap provision in relation to the decriminalisation of underage consensual sex in South Africa. South African Journal of Bioethics and Law, 11(2), 85–88. https://doi.org/10.7196/SAJBL.2018.v11i2.657
   Google Scholar
• Field, A. (2018). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (5th ed.). SAGE Publications Ltd.
   Google Scholar
• Glosser, A., Gardiner, K. N., & Fishman, M. (2004). Statutory rape: A guide to state laws and reporting requirements. Department of Health and Human Services. https://aspe.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/migrated_legacy_files/42881/report.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Graham, P. (2018). Against the stream: Lowering the age of sexual consent. BJPsych Bulletin, 42(4), 162–164. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjb.2017.26
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gross, B. (2007). Romeo & juliet laws: When the punishment does not fit the crime. Annals of the American Psychotherapy Association, 10(2), 21–26. https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&u=anon~eacd783b&id=GALE|A166186190&v=2.1&it=r&sid=googleScholar&asid=edc74f67
   Google Scholar
• Hines, D. A., & Finkelhor, D. (2007). Statutory sex crime relationships between juveniles and adults: A review of social scientific research. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 12(3), 300–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2006.10.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horvath, M. A., & Giner-Sorolla, R. (2007). Below the age of consent: Double standards, context effects, and mediating judgments in preconceptions of adolescent-adult sexual relationships. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 37(2), 2980–3009. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2007.00290.x
   Google Scholar
• Icenogle, G., Steinberg, L., Duell, N., Chein, J., Chang, L., Chaudhary, N., DiGiunta, L., Dodge, K. A., Fanti, K. A., Lansford, J. E., Oburu, P., Pastorelli, C., Skinner, A. T., Sorbring, E., Tapanya, S., Uribe Tirado, L. M., Alampay, L. P., Al-Hassan, S. M., Takash, H. M. S., & Bacchini, D. (2019). Adolescents’ cognitive capacity reaches adult levels prior to their psychosocial maturity: Evidence for a “maturity gap” in a multinational, cross-sectional sample. Law and Human Behavior, 43(1), 69. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000315
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Independent Inquiry Child Sexual Abuse (IICSA). (2021). Child protection in religious organisations and Settings – Investigation Report. https://www.iicsa.org.uk/key-documents/26895/view/child-protection-religious-organisations-settings-investigation-report-september-2021-.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Kangaude, G. D., & Skelton, A. (2018). (De) Criminalizing adolescent sex: A rights-based assessment of age of consent laws in Eastern and Southern Africa. SAGE Open, 8(4), 215824401880603. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244018806036
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koon‐Magnin, S., Kreager, D. A., & Ruback, R. B. (2010). Partner age differences, educational contexts and adolescent female sexual activity. Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 42(3), 206–213. https://doi.org/10.1363/4220610
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koon‐Magnin, S., & Ruback, R. B. (2013). The perceived legitimacy of statutory rape laws: The effects of victim age, perpetrator age, and age span. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43(9), 1918–1930. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12131
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koon-Magnin, S. L. (2008). Adolescent sexual activity and statutory rape: A multi-method investigation [ Unpublished master’s thesis]. The Pennsylvania State University.
   Google Scholar
• Koon-Magnin, S., & Ruback, R. B. (2012). Young adults’ perceptions of consensual sexual activity: The effects of participant gender, respondent gender, and sexual act. Sex Roles, 67(11), 646–658. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-012-0201-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreager, D. A., & Staff, J. (2009). The sexual double standard and adolescent peer acceptance. Social Psychology Quarterly, 72(2), 143–164. https://doi.org/10.1177/019027250907200205
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreager, D. A., Staff, J., Gauthier, R., Lefkowitz, E. S., & Feinberg, M. E. (2016). The double standard at sexual debut: Gender, sexual behavior and adolescent peer acceptance. Sex Roles, 75(7), 377–392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0618-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leitenberg, H., & Saltzman, H. (2000). A statewide survey of age at first intercourse for adolescent females and age of their male partners: Relation to other risk behaviors and statutory rape implications. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 29(3), 203–215. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1001920212732
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lippert, T., Clary, M., Bleoaja, C., Walsh, W. A., & Jones, L. M. (2022). Statutory rape: Case characteristics when offenders are younger than 21 years of age versus older. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(9–10), NP7984–NP8005. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520975807
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshall, W. L., & Barbaree, H. E. (1990). An integrated theory of the etiology of sexual offending. In W. L. Marshall, D. R. Laws, & H. E. Barbaree (Eds.), Handbook of sexual assault (pp. 257–275). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0915-2_15
   Google Scholar
• McNeeley, S. (2012). Sensitive issues in surveys: Reducing refusals while increasing reliability and quality of responses to sensitive survey items. In L. Gideon (Ed.), Handbook of survey methodology for the social sciences (pp. 377–396). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3876-2_22
   Google Scholar
• Measor, L. (2004). Young people’s views of sex education: Gender, information and knowledge. Sex Education, 4(2), 153–166. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681810410001678338
   Google Scholar
• Mercer, C. H., Tanton, C., Prah, P., Erens, B., Sonnenberg, P., Clifton, S., Macdowall, W., Lewis, R., Field, N., Datta, J., Copas, A. J., Phelps, A., Wellings, K., & Johnson, A. M. (2013). Changes in sexual attitudes and lifestyles in Britain through the life course and over time: Findings from the National Surveys of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles (Natsal). The Lancet, 382(9907), 1781–1794. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(13)62035-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention [OJJDP]. (2005). Statutory rape known to law enforcement. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/208803.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Oudekerk, B. A., Farr, R. H., & Reppucci, N. D. (2013). Is it love or sexual abuse? Young adults’ perceptions of statutory rape. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 22(7), 858–877. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2013.830668
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oudekerk, B. A., Guarnera, L. A., & Reppucci, N. D. (2014). Older opposite-sex romantic partners, sexual risk, and victimization in adolescence. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38(7), 1238–1248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.03.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pallant, J. (2020). SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using IBM SPSS (7th ed.). Open University Press: McGraw-Hill Education. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003117452
   Google Scholar
• Peer, E., Brandimarte, L., Samat, S., & Acquisti, A. (2017). Beyond the Turk: Alternative platforms for crowdsourcing behavioral research. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 70, 153–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2017.01.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reitz-Krueger, C. L., Warner, T. C., Newsham, R. L., & Reppucci, N. D. (2016). Who’s to blame? Perceptions of adolescents’ maturity and responsibility in sexual relationships with an older partner. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 22(1), 105–113. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000065
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahl, D., & Keene, J. R. (2010). The sexual double standard and gender differences in predictors of perceptions of adult-teen sexual relationships. Sex Roles, 62(3), 264–277. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9727-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahl, D., & Keene, J. R. (2012). The effects of age, authority, and gender on perceptions of statutory rape offenders. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27(18), 3701–3722. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260512447523
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sentencing Council. (2013). Sexual offences: Response to consultation. https://www.sentencingcouncil.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/Final_Sexual_Offences_Response_to_Consultation_web1.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Seto, M. C. (2009). Pedophilia. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 5, 391–407. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.032408.153618
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seto, M. C. (2019). The motivation-facilitation model of sexual offending. Sexual Abuse, 31(1), 3–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063217720919
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Setty, E. (2021). Sex and consent in contemporary youth sexual culture: The ‘ideals’ and the ‘realities’. Sex Education, 21(3), 331–346. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681811.2020.1802242
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sexual Offences Act. (2003). s.13, (SOA). https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2003/42/section/13
   Google Scholar
• Sexual Offences (Northern Ireland) Order. (2008). s.20, (SONIO). https://www.legislation.gov.uk/nisi/2008/1769/article/20/2015-07-25
   Google Scholar
• Sexual Offences (Scotland) Act. (2009). (SOSA). https://www.legislation.gov.uk/asp/2009/9/part/4/crossheading/older-children
   Google Scholar
• Shields, R. T., & Cochran, J. C. (2020). The gender gap in sex offender punishment. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 36(1), 95–118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-019-09416-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simon, W., & Gagnon, J. H. (1986). Sexual scripts: Permanence and change. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 15(2), 97–120. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01542219
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skelton, A. (2015). Balancing autonomy and protection in children’s rights: A South African account. Temple Law Review, 88(4), 887–904. https://www.templelawreview.org/article/balancing-autonomy-and-protection-in-childrens-rights-a-south-african-account/
   Google Scholar
• Society, F. (2018, October 2). MeToo one year on – what’s changed? https://www.citywomen.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/FawcettSociety-Men-and-Harassment.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Stevenson, K. (2012). ‘It is what “girls of indifferent character” do … ’complications concerning the legal age of sexual consent in the light of R v C (2011). The Journal of Criminal Law, 76(2), 130–139. https://doi.org/10.1350/jcla.2012.76.2.760
   Google Scholar
• Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Tewksbury, R. (2005). Collateral consequences of sex offender registration. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 21(1), 67–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986204271704
   Google Scholar
• Tewksbury, R., & Zgoba, K. M. (2010). Perceptions and coping with punishment: How registered sex offenders respond to stress, internet restrictions, and the collateral consequences of registration. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 54(4), 537–551. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X09339180
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward, T., & Siegert, R. J. (2002). Toward a comprehensive theory of child sexual abuse: A theory knitting perspective. Psychology, Crime and Law, 8(4), 319–351. https://doi.org/10.1080/10683160208401823
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu, G. (2023). European legislators’ attitudes toward childhood sexuality from the perspective of age of consent legislation. European Journal of Criminology, 20(4), 1309–1330. https://doi.org/10.1177/14773708211046195
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar