158
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

“I’m Better Than This”: A Qualitative Analysis of the Turning Points Leading to Exiting Inceldom

&

References

  • Aarten, P. G. M., Mulder, E., & Pemberton, A. (2018). The narrative of victimization and deradicalization: An expert view. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 41(7), 557–572. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2017.1311111
  • Anti-Defamation League. (2023, March). Incels (involuntary celibates). https://www.adl.org/resources/backgrounder/incels-involuntary-celibates
  • Apostolou, M., Sullman, M., Birkás, B., Błachnio, A., Bushina, E., Calvo, F., Costello, W., Dujlovic, T., Hill, T., Lajunen, T. J., Lisun, Y., Manrique-Millones, D., Manrique-Pino, O., Meskó, N., Nechtelberger, M., Ohtsubo, Y., Ollhoff, C. K., Przepiórka, A., Putz, Á., & Wright, P.… Font-Mayolas, S. (2023). Mating performance and singlehood across 14 nations. Evolutionary Psychology, 21(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/14747049221150169
  • Aragón, P., Gómez, V., García, D., & Kaltenbrunner, A. (2017). Generative models of online discussion threads: State of the art and research challenges. Journal of Internet Services and Applications, 8(15), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13174-017-0066-z
  • Baele, S. J., Brace, L., & Coan, T. G. (2021). From “incel” to “Saint”: Analyzing the violent worldview behind the 2018 Toronto attack. Terrorism and Political Violence, 33(8), 1667–1691. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2019.1638256
  • Baele, S., Brace, L., & Ging, D. (2023). A diachronic cross-platforms analysis of violent extremist language in the incel online ecosystem. Terrorism and Political Violence, 36(3), 382–405. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2022.2161373
  • Barnes, S. B. (2004). Issues of attribution and identification in online social research. In M. D. Johns, S.-L. S. Chen, & G. J. Hall (Eds.), Online social research: Methods, issues, and ethics (pp. 203–222). Peter Lang.
  • Barrelle, K. (2015). Pro-integration: Disengagement from and life after extremism. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism & Political Aggression, 7(2), 129–142. https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2014.988165
  • Beninger, K. (2016). Social media users’ views on the ethics of social media research. In The SAGE handbook of social media research methods (pp. 57–73). SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473983847
  • Bérubé, M., Scrivens, R., Venkatesh, V., & Gaudette, T. (2019). Converging patterns in pathways in and out of violent extremism: Insights from former Canadian right-wing extremists. Perspectives on Terrorism, 13(6), 73–89.
  • Boislard, M.-A., Boisvert, S., Millette, M., Dion, L., & Lavigne, J. (2022). Representations of sexually inexperienced emerging adults in fictional television series and movies. Sexuality & Culture, 26(3), 1031–1059. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-021-09930-w
  • Boislard, M.-A., Lafortune, D., Millette, M., Fournier, E., & Morozov, M. (n.d.). Whose fault is it that “I will be alone for the rest of my life”? Locus of control theory applied to incels’ online discourses. Manuscript in preparation.
  • Bosson, J. K., Rousis, G. J., & Felig, R. N. (2022). Curvilinear sexism and its links to men’s perceived mate value. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 48(4), 516–533. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672211009726
  • Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2012). Thematic analysis. In H. Cooper, P. M. Camic, D. L. Long, A.T. Panter, D. Rindskopf, & K.J. Sher (Eds.), APA handbook of research methods in psychology, Vol 2: Research designs: Quantitative, qualitative, neuropsychological, and biological (pp. 57–71). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/13620-004
  • Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2019). Reflecting on reflexive thematic analysis. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 11(4), 589–597. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2019.1628806
  • Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2021). To saturate or not to saturate? Questioning data saturation as a useful concept for thematic analysis and sample-size rationales. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 13(2), 201–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2019.1704846
  • Broyd, J., Boniface, L., Parsons, D., Murphy, D., & Hafferty, J. D. (2022). Incels, violence and mental disorder: A narrative review with recommendations for best practice in risk assessment and clinical intervention. BJPsych Advances, 29(4), 254–264. https://doi.org/10.1192/bja.2022.15
  • Brzuszkiewicz, S. (2020). Incel radical milieu and external locus of control (Vols. 1–1). International Centre for Counter-Terrorism (ICCT). https://icct.nl/app/uploads/2020/11/Special-Edition-2-1.pdf
  • Bubolz, B. F., & Simi, P. (2015). Leaving the world of hate: Life-course transitions and self-change. American Behavioral Scientist, 59(12), 1588–1608. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764215588814
  • Canadian Security Intelligence Service. (2020, April). CSIS public report 2019. Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness. https://www.canada.ca/en/security-intelligence-service/corporate/publications/2019-public-report.html
  • CBC News. (2023, June 6). Incel-inspired Toronto massage parlour murder was act of terror, judge rules. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/incel-toronto-massage-killing-terrorism-1.6867177
  • Costello, W., & Buss, D. M. (2023). Why isn’t there more incel violence? Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology, 9(3), 252–259. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40750-023-00220-3
  • Costello, W., Rolon, V., Thomas, A. G., & Schmitt, D. (2022). Levels of well-being among men who are incel (involuntarily celibate). Evolutionary Psychological Science, 8(4), 375–390. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40806-022-00336-x
  • Costello, W., Rolon, V., Thomas, A. G., & Schmitt, D. P. (2023). The mating psychology of incels (involuntary celibates): Misfortunes, misperceptions, and misrepresentations. The Journal of Sex Research, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2023.2248096
  • Cottee, S. (2020). Incel (e)motives: Resentment, shame and revenge. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 44(2), 93–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2020.1822589
  • Daly, S. E., & Laskovtsov, A. (2021). “Goodbye, my friendcels”: An analysis of incel suicide posts. Journal of Qualitative Criminal Justice and Criminology, 11(1), 1–33. https://doi.org/10.21428/88de04a1.b7b8b295
  • Daly, S. E., & Nichols, A. L. (2023). ‘Incels are shit-post kings’: Incels’ perceptions of online forum content. Journal of Crime and Justice, 47(1), 4–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/0735648X.2023.2169330
  • Daly, S. E., & Reed, S. M. (2022). “I think most of society hates us”: A qualitative thematic analysis of interviews with incels. Sex Roles, 86(1–2), 14–33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-021-01250-5
  • DeCook, J. R., & Kelly, M. (2022). Interrogating the “incel menace”: Assessing the threat of male supremacy in terrorism studies. Critical Studies on Terrorism, 15(3), 706–726. https://doi.org/10.1080/17539153.2021.2005099
  • DePaulo, B. M., & Morris, W. L. (2005). Singles in society and in science. Psychological Inquiry, 16(2–3), 57–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2005.9682918
  • Donnelly, D., Burgess, E., Anderson, S., Davis, R., & Dillard, J. (2001). Involuntary celibacy: A life course analysis. The Journal of Sex Research, 38(2), 159–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490109552083
  • Elder, G. H. (1998). The life course as developmental theory. Child Development, 69(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.2307/1132065
  • Elder, G. H., Johnson, M. K., & Crosnoe, R. (2003). The emergence and development of life course theory. In J. T. Mortimer & M.J. Shanahan (Eds.), Handbook of life course. Kluwer Academic Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1007/b100507
  • Fuller, M. A., Boislard, M.-A., & Fernet, M. (2019). “You’re a virgin? Really!?”: A qualitative study of emerging adult female virgins’ experiences of disclosure. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 28(2), 190–202. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjhs.2019-0002
  • Furl, K. (2022). Denigrating women, venerating “Chad”: Ingroup and outgroup evaluations among male supremacists on Reddit. Social Psychology Quarterly, 85(3), 279–299. https://doi.org/10.1177/01902725221090907
  • Garcia, A. C., Standlee, A. I., Bechkoff, J., & Cui, Y. (2009). Ethnographic approaches to the internet and computer-mediated communication. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 38(1), 52–84. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891241607310839
  • Gheorghe, R. M. (2023). “Just Be White (JBW)”: Incels, race and the violence of whiteness. Affilia, 39(1), 59–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/08861099221144275
  • Gheorghe, R. M., & Yuzva Clement, D. (2023). ‘It’s time to put the copes down and get to work’: A qualitative study of incel exit strategies on r/IncelExit. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2023.2276485
  • Ging, D. (2019). Alphas, betas, and incels: Theorizing the masculinities of the manosphere. Men and Masculinities, 22(4), 638–657. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X17706401
  • Girme, Y. U., Park, Y., & MacDonald, G. (2022). Coping or thriving? Reviewing intrapersonal, interpersonal, and societal factors associated with well-being in singlehood from a within-group perspective. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 18(5), 1097–1120. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916221136119
  • Grunau, K., Bieselt, H. E., Gul, P., & Kupfer, T. R. (2022). Unwanted celibacy is associated with misogynistic attitudes even after controlling for personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 199, 111860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2022.111860
  • Halpin, M., Richard, N., Preston, K., Gosse, M., & Maguire, F. (2023). Men who hate women: The misogyny of involuntarily celibate men. New Media & Society, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448231176777
  • Hart, G., & Huber, A. R. (2023). Five things we need to learn about incel extremism: Issues, challenges and avenues for fresh research. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2023.2195067
  • Hastings, Z., Jones, D., Stolte, L., Smyth, P., Rsw, M., & McCoy, J. (2020, May). Involuntary celibates: Background for practitioners. Organization for the Prevention of Violence. https://preventviolence.ca/publication/incels-background-for-practitioners
  • Helm, B., Scrivens, R., Holt, T. J., Chermak, S., & Frank, R. (2022). Examining incel subculture on Reddit. Journal of Crime and Justice, 47(1), 27–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/0735648X.2022.2074867
  • Henschke, E., & Sedlmeier, P. (2021). What is self-love? Redefinition of a controversial construct. The Humanistic Psychologist, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1037/hum0000266
  • Heritage, F., & Koller, V. (2020). Incels, in-groups, and ideologies: The representation of gendered social actors in a sexuality-based online community. Journal of Language and Sexuality, 9(2), 152–178. https://doi.org/10.1075/jls.19014.her
  • Hintz, E. A., & Baker, J. T. (2021). A performative face theory analysis of online facework by the formerly involuntarily celibate. International Journal of Communication, 15, 3047–3066. https://www.ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/16847
  • Hoffman, B., Ware, J., & Shapiro, E. (2020). Assessing the threat of incel violence. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 43(7), 565–587. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2020.1751459
  • Hutchison, E. D. (2017). Life course theory. In R. Levesque (Ed.), Encyclopedia of adolescence (pp. 1586–1593). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32132-5_13-2
  • IncelExit. (n.d.). r/IncelExit. https://www.reddit.com/r/IncelExit/
  • Jaki, S., Smedt, T. D., Gwóźdź, M., Panchal, R., Rossa, A., & Pauw, G. D. (2019). Online hatred of women in the incels.me forum: Linguistic analysis and automatic detection. Journal of Language Aggression and Conflict, 7(2), 240–268. https://doi.org/10.1075/jlac.00026.jak
  • Kruglanski, A. W., Gelfand, M. J., Bélanger, J. J., Sheveland, A., Hetiarachchi, M., & Gunaratna, R. (2014). The psychology of radicalization and deradicalization: How significance quest impacts violent extremism. Political Psychology, 35(S1), 69–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12163
  • Lamoureux, J., & Boislard, M. A. (2023). Representations of virgin young adult men in internet macro memes. Sexuality & Culture, 27(4), 1527–1555. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-023-10077-z
  • Latzko-Toth, G., Bonneau, C., & Millette, M. (2016). Small data, thick data: Thickening strategies for trace-based social media research. In The SAGE handbook of social media research methods (pp. 199–214). SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473983847
  • Lehmann, V., Tuinman, M. A., Braeken, J., Vingerhoets, A. J. J. M., Sanderman, R., & Hagedoorn, M. (2015). Satisfaction with relationship status: Development of a new scale and the role in predicting well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 16(1), 169–184. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-014-9503-x
  • Leite-Mendonca, S., & Boislard, M. A. (manuscript accepted). ‘‘Help me please, I need practical advice’’: A qualitative exploration of social support dynamics among incels on online forums. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality.
  • Leroux, A., & Boislard, M.-A. (2023). Exploration of emerging adult virgins’ difficulties. Emerging Adulthood, 11(1), 121–132. https://doi.org/10.1177/21676968211064109
  • Lucas, A., Boislard, M.-A., & Poulin, F. (2020). Why do socially withdrawn children tend to become heterosexually active later than their peers? A mediation model. The Journal of Sex Research, 57(9), 1146–1155. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2019.1685071
  • Maslow, A. H. (1987). Motivation and personality (3rd ed.). Harper & Row Publishers.
  • Maxwell, D., Robinson, S. R., Williams, J. R., & Keaton, C. (2020). “A short story of a lonely guy”: A qualitative thematic analysis of involuntary celibacy using Reddit. Sexuality & Culture, 24(6), 1852–1874. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-020-09724-6
  • McAdams, D. P., & McLean, K. C. (2013). Narrative identity. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22(3), 233–238. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413475622
  • Menzie, L. (2022). Stacys, Beckys, and Chads: The construction of femininity and hegemonic masculinity within incel rhetoric. Psychology and Sexuality, 13(1), 69–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2020.1806915
  • Millette, M., & Boislard, M. A. (2023). “Come on, it’s not that bad!”: Soutien social et registres d’expertise dans les échanges sur l’inexpérience sexuelle chez les jeunes adultes dans Reddit. Questions de Communication, 43(43), 33–60. https://doi.org/10.4000/questionsdecommunication.31144
  • Mortimer, J. T., & Shanahan, M. J. (2003). Handbook of the life course. Mortimer, J. T., & Shanahan, M. J. (Eds.). Kluwer Academic Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1007/b100507
  • Moskalenko, S., González, J. F.-G., Kates, N., & Morton, J. (2022). Incel ideology, radicalization and mental health: A survey study. The Journal of Intelligence, Conflict, and Warfare, 4(3), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.21810/jicw.v4i3.3817
  • O’Malley, R. L., & Helm, B. (2022). The role of perceived injustice and need for esteem on incel membership online. Deviant Behavior, 44(7), 1026–1043. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2022.2133650
  • O’Malley, R. L., Holt, K., & Holt, T. J. (2022). An exploration of the involuntary celibate (incel) subculture online. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(7–8), NP4981–NP5008. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520959625
  • OpenAI. (n.d.). ChatGPT. https://chat.openai.com
  • Osuna, A. I. (2023). Leaving the incel community: A content analysis. Sexuality & Culture, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-023-10143-6
  • Pelzer, B., Kaati, L., Cohen, K., & Fernquist, J. (2021). Toxic language in online incel communities. SN Social Sciences, 1(213), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43545-021-00220-8
  • Regehr, K. (2020). In(cel)doctrination: How technologically facilitated misogyny moves violence off screens and on to streets. New Media & Society, 24(1), 138–155. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820959019
  • Sage Publications. (2023). ChatGPT and generative AI. https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/chatgpt-and-generative-ai
  • Santiago-Delefosse, M., & Del Rio Carral, M. (2017). Les méthodes qualitatives en psychologie et sciences humaines de la santé (23rd ed. Vol. 1). Dunod. http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb452054375
  • Schnapper, D. (2012). 14 – Élaborer un type idéal. In L’enquête sociologique (pp. 291–310). Presses Universitaires de France. https://doi.org/10.3917/puf.paug.2012.01.0291
  • Shawcross, W. (2023, December). Independent review of prevent. UK Government. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/independent-review-of-prevents-report-and-government-response/independent-review-of-prevent-accessible
  • Simi, P., Windisch, S., Harris, D., & Ligon, G. (2019). Anger from within: The role of emotions in disengagement from violent extremism. Journal of Qualitative Criminal Justice and Criminology, 7(2). https://doi.org/10.21428/88de04a1.7dc6a559
  • Southern Poverty Law Center. (2019). Male supremacy. https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/ideology/male-supremacy
  • Sparks, B., Zidenberg, A. M., & Olver, M. E. (2022). Involuntary celibacy: A review of incel ideology and experiences with dating, rejection, and associated mental health and emotional sequelae. Current Psychiatry Reports, 24(12), 731–740. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-022-01382-9
  • Sparks, B., Zidenberg, A. M., & Olver, M. E. (2023). An exploratory study of incels’ dating app experiences, mental health, and relational well-being. The Journal of Sex Research, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2023.2249775
  • Sparks, B., Zidenberg, A. M., & Olver, M. E. (2024). One is the loneliest number: Involuntary celibacy (incel), mental health, and loneliness. Current Psychology, 43(1), 392–406. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-023-04275-z
  • Speckhard, A., & Ellenberg, M. (2022). Self-reported psychiatric disorder and perceived psychological symptom rates among involuntary celibates (incels) and their perceptions of mental health treatment. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2022.2029933
  • Speckhard, A., Ellenberg, M., Morton, J., & Ash, A. (2021). Involuntary celibates’ experiences of and grievance over sexual exclusion and the potential threat of violence among those active in an online incel forum. Journal of Strategic Security, 14(2), 89–121. https://doi.org/10.5038/1944-0472.14.2.1910
  • Tomkinson, S., Harper, T., & Attwell, K. (2020). Confronting incel: Exploring possible policy responses to misogynistic violent extremism. Australian Journal of Political Science, 55(2), 152–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/10361146.2020.1747393
  • Trip, S., Bora, C. H., Marian, M., Halmajan, A., & Drugas, M. I. (2019). Psychological mechanisms involved in radicalization and extremism. A rational emotive behavioral conceptualization. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00437
  • Twenge, J. M., Sherman, R. A., & Wells, B. E. (2017). Sexual inactivity during young adulthood is more common among U.S. millennials and iGen: Age, period, and cohort effects on having no sexual partners after age 18. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46(2), 433–440. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-016-0798-z
  • Wheaton, B., & Gotlib, I. H. (1997). Trajectories and turning points over the life course: Concepts and themes. In B. Wheaton & I. H. Gotlib (Eds.), Stress and adversity over the life course: Trajectories and turning points (pp. 1–26). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511527623.001
  • Whittaker, J., Costello, W., & Thomas, A. G. (2024, February). Predicting harm among incels (involuntary celibates): The roles of mental health, ideological belief and social networking. UK Government. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/predicting-harm-among-incels-involuntary-celibates/predicting-harm-among-incels-involuntary-celibates-the-roles-of-mental-health-ideological-belief-and-social-networking-accessible
  • Windisch, S., Simi, P., Ligon, G. S., & McNeel, H. (2017). Disengagement from ideologically-based and violent organizations: A systematic review of the literature. Journal for Deradicalization, 9, 1–38. https://journals.sfu.ca/jd/index.php/jd/article/view/72
  • Witt, T. (2020). ‘If i cannot have it, i will do everything i can to destroy it.’ the canonization of Elliot Rodger: ‘Incel’ masculinities, secular sainthood, and justifications of ideological violence. Social Identities, 26(5), 675–689. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504630.2020.1787132

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.