The Bacterial Flora in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Current Insights in Pathogenesis and the Influence of Antibiotics and Probiotics

References

• Warren JR, Marshall BJ. Unidentified curved bacilli on gastric epithelium in active chronic gastritis. Lancet 1983;i:1273–5.
   Google Scholar
• Karmali MA, Steele BT, Petric M, Lim C. Sporadic cases of haemolytic-uraemic syndrome associated with faecal cytotoxin and cytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli in stools. Lancet 1983;i:619–20.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Relman DA, Schmidt TM, MacDermott RP, Falkow S. Identification of the uncultured bacillus of Whipple’s disease. N Engl J Med 1992;327:293–301.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drasar BS, Shiner M, Mcleod GM. Studies on the intestinal flora. 1. The bacterial flora of the gastrointestinal tract in healthy and achlorhydric persons. Gastroenterology 1969;56: 71–9.
   Google Scholar
• Gorbach SL, Levitan R. Intestinal flora in health and gastrointestinal diseases. In: Glass GBJ, editor. Progress in gastroenterology, vol. 2. New York: Grune and Stratton; 1970. p. 252–75.
   Google Scholar
• Gorbach SL, Plaut AG, Weinstein L. Studies of intestinal microflora. II. Microorganisms of the small intestine and their relations to oral and fecal flora. Gastroenterology 1967;53: 856–67.
   Google Scholar
• Drasar BS, Shiner M. Studies on the intestinal flora. II. Bacterial flora of the small intestine in patients with gastrointestinal disorders. Gut 1969;10:812–9.
   Google Scholar
• Gorbach SL. Intestinal microflora. Gastroenterology 1971;60: 1110–29.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thadepalli H, Lou Sr. MA, Bach VT. Microflora of the human small intestine. Am J Surg 1979;138:845–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Savage DC. Interactions between the host and its microbes. In: Clarke RTJ, Bauchop T, editors. Microbial ecology of the gut. New York: Academic Press; 1977. p. 277–310.
   Google Scholar
• Gall LS. Normal faecal flora of man. Am J Clin Nutr 1970;23: 1457–65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill MJ, Drasar BS. The normal colonic bacterial flora. Gut 1975;16:318–23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drasar BS, Hill MJ. Human intestinal microflora. New York: Academic Press; 1974.
   Google Scholar
• Gorbach SL, Nakas L, Lerner PI, Weinstein L. Effects of diet, age and periodic sampling on numbers of faecal microorganisms in man. Gastroenterology 1967;53:845–55.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simon GC, Gorbach SL. Intestinal flora in health and disease. Gastroenterology 1984;86:174–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mackowiak PA. The normal microbial flora. N Engl J Med 1982;307:83–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salminen S, Isolauri E, Onnela T. Gut flora in normal and disordered states. Chemotherapy 1995;41 Suppl 1:5–15.
   Google Scholar
• Long SS, Swenson RM. Developments of anaerobic fecal flora in healthy newborn infants. J Pediatr 1977;91:298–301.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill MJ. Diet and the human intestinal bacterial flora. Cancer Res 1981;41:3778–80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zubrzycki L, Spaulding EH. Studies on the stability of the normal fecal flora. J Bacteriol 1962;83:968–74.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooke EM, Ewins SP, Shooter R. The changing fecal population of E. coli in hospital medical patients. Br Med J 1969;4:593–5.
   Google Scholar
• Savage DC. Colonization by and survival of pathogenic bacteria on intestinal mucosal surfaces. In: Britton G, Marshall KC, editors. Adsorption of microorganisms to surfaces. New York: John Wiley; 1980. p. 175–205.
   Google Scholar
• Van der Waaij D, Berghuis-de Vries JM, Lekkerkerk-van Wees JEC. Colonization resistance of the digestive tract in conventional and antibiotic-treated mice. J Hyg 1971;69:405–11.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rolfe R. Colonization resistance. In: Mackie RI, White BA, Isaacson RE, editors. Gastrointestinal microbiology. Gastrointestinal microbes and host interactions. New York: Chapman and Hall; 1996. p. 501–36.
   Google Scholar
• Moore WEC, Holdeman LV. Special problems associated with their isolation and identification of intestinal bacteria in fecal flora studies. Am J Clin Nutr 1974;27:1450–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore WEC, Cato EP, Holdeman LV. Some current concepts in intestinal bacteriology. Am J Clin Nutr 1978;31:S33–42.
   Google Scholar
• Savage DC. Microbial ecology of the gastrointestinal tract. Ann Rev Microbiol 1977;31:107–33.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krogfelt KA. Bacterial adhesion: genetics, biogenesis, and role in pathogenesis of fimbrial adhesins of Escherichia coli. Rev Infect Dis 1991;13:721–35.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tysk C, Riedesel H, Lindberg E, Panzini B, Podolsky D, Jarnerot G. Colonic glycoproteins in monozygotic twins with inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 1991;100:419–23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhodes JM. Unifying hypothesis for inflammatory bowel disease and associated colon cancer: sticking the pieces together with sugar. Lancet 1996;347:40–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruseler-van Embden JG, Both-Patoir HC. Anaerobic gramnegative faecal flora in patients with Crohn’s disease and healthy subjects. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 1983;49:125–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hudson MJ, Hill MJ, Elliott PR, Berghouse LM, Burnham WR, Lennard-Jones JE. The microbial flora of the rectal mucosa and faeces of patients with Crohn’s disease before and during antimicrobial chemotherapy. J Med Microbiol 1984;18:335–45.
   Google Scholar
• Danielsson D, Kjellander J, Jarnerot G. The effect of metronidazole and sulfasalazine on the fecal flora in patients with Crohn’s disease. Scand J Gastroenterol 1981;16:183–92.
   Google Scholar
• van der Wiel-Korstanje JA, Winkler KC. The faecal flora in ulcerative colitis. J Med Microbiol 1975;8:491–501.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gillian Hartley M, Hudson MJ, Swarbrick ET, Hill MJ, Gent AE, Hellier MD, et al. The rectal mucosa-associated microflora in patients with ulcerative colitis. J Med Microbiol 1992; 36:96–103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poxton IR, Brown R, Sawyer A, Ferguson A. Mucosa-associated bacterial flora of the human colon. J Med Microbiol 1997;46:85–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schultsz C, van den Berg FM, Ten Kate FW, Tytgat GNJ, Dankert J. The intestinal mucus layer from patients with inflammatory bowel disease harbors high numbers of bacteria compared with controls. Gastroenterology 1999;117: 1089–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chadwick VS, Anderson RP. Microorganisms and their products in inflammatory bowel disease. In: McDermott RP, Stimpson WF, editors. Inflammatory bowel disease. New York: Elsevier; 1992. p. 241–58.
   Google Scholar
• Wolf JL, Bye WA. The membranous epithelial (M) cell and the mucosal immune system. Annu Rev Med 1984;35:95–112.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neutra MR, Giannasca PJ, et al. M cells and microbial pathogens. In: Blaser MJ, Smith PD, Ravdin JI, Greenberg JB, Guerrant RL, editors. Infections of the gastrointestinal tract. New York: Raven Press; 1995. p. 163–78.
   Google Scholar
• Hollander D, Constance MV, Brettholz E, et al. Increased intestinal permeability in patients with Crohn’s disease and their relatives. Ann Intern Med 1986;105:883–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schreiber S, Raedler A, Stenson MF, et al. The role of the mucosal immune system in inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 1992;21:451–501.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sartor RB. Microbial factors in the pathogenesis of Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis, and experimental intestinal inflammation. In: Kirsner JB, editor. Inflammatory bowel disease, 5th ed. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders; 2000. p. 153–78.
   Google Scholar
• McDermott RP. Alterations in the mucosal immune system in ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease. Med Clin North Am 1994;78:1207–31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward DM, Weller R, Bateson MM. 16S rRNA sequences reveal numerous uncultured microorganisms in a natural community. Nature 1990;345: 63–5.
   Google Scholar
• Long AA, Komminoth P. In situ PCR. An overview. Meth Mol Biol 1997;71:141–61.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Amann RI. Fluorescently labelled, rRNA-targeted oligonucleotide probes in the study of microbial ecology. Mol Ecol 1995;4:543–53.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muyzer G, Smalla K. Application of denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) and temperature gradient gel electrophoresis (TGGE) in microbial ecology. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 1998;73:127–41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heid CA, Stevens J, Livak KJ, Williams PM. Real time quantitative PCR. Genome Res 1996;6:986–94.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orchard TR, Satsangi J, van Heel D, Jewell DP. Genetics and inflammatory bowel disease: a reappraisal. Scand J Immunol 2000;51:10–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouma G, Xia B, Crusius JBA, Bioque G, Koutroubakis I, von Blomberg BME, et al. Distribution of four polymorphisms in the tumor necrosis factor genes in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Clin Exp Immunol 1996;103:391–6.
   Google Scholar
• Hirv K, Seyfarth M, Uibo R, Kull K, Salupere R, Latza U, et al. Polymorphisms in tumour necrosis factor and adhesion molecule genes in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: associations with HLA-DR and -DQ alleles and subclinical markers. Scand J Gastroenterol 1999;34:1025–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouma G, Poen AC, Garcia-Gonzalez MA, Schreuder GMT, Felt-Bersma RJF, Meuwissen SGM, et al. HLA-DR3B1*03, but not the TNFa-308 promoter gene polymorphism, protection against fistulising Crohn’s disease. Immunogenetics 1998;47: 451–5.
   Google Scholar
• Stokkers PCF, Reitsma PH, Tytgat GNJ, van Deventer SJH. HLA-DR and -DQ phenotypes in inflammatory bowel disease: a meta-analysis. Gut 1999;45:395–401.
   Google Scholar
• Koutroubakis I, Manousos ON, Meuwissen SGM, Pena AS. Environmental risk factors in inflammatory bowel disease. Hepato-Gastroenterol 1996;43:381–93.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fiocchi C. Inflammatory bowel disease: etiology and pathogenesis. Gastroenterology 1998;115:182–205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhodes J, Thomas GA. Smoking: good or bad for inflammatory bowel disease? Gastroenterology 1994;106:807–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas GA, Rhodes J, Green JT. Inflammatory bowel disease and smoking—a review. Am J Gastroenterol 1998;43:144–9.
   Google Scholar
• Russel MGWM, Dorant E, Brummer RJM, van de Kruys MA, Muris WJ, Bergers JM, et al. Appendectomy and the risk of developing ulcerative colitis or Crohn’s disease: result of a large case-control study. Gastroenterology 1997;113:377–82.
   Google Scholar
• Gilat T, Hacohen D, Lilos P, Langman MJS. Childhood factors in ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease. Scand J Gastroenterol 1987;22:1009–24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wurzelmann JI, Lyles CM, Sandler RS. Childhood infections and the risk of inflammatory bowel disease. Dig Dis Sci 1994; 39:555–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kangro HO, Chong SK, Hardiman A, Heath RB, Walker-Smith JA. A prospective study of viral and mycoplasma infections in chronic inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 1990; 98:549–53.
   Google Scholar
• Mee AS, Jewell DP. Factors inducing relapse in inflammatory bowel disease. Br Med J 1978;2:801–2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hermens DJ, Miner PB. Exacerbation of ulcerative colitis. Gastroenterology 1991;101:254–62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miner PB. Factors influencing the relapse of patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Am J Gastroenterol 1997;92:1S–4S.
   Google Scholar
• Brandwein SL, McCabe RP, Cong Y, et al. Spontaneously colitic C3H/HeJBir mice demonstrate selective antibody reactivity to antigens of the enteric bacterial flora. J Immunol 1997;159:44–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dianda L, Hanby AM, Wright NA, Sebesteny A, Hayday AC, Owen MJ. T cell receptor-alpha-beta-defi cient mice fail to develop colitis in the absence of a microbial environment. Am J Pathol 1997;150:91–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tysk C, Jarnerot G. Seasonal variation in exacerbations of ulcerative colitis. Scand J Gastroenterol 1993;28:95–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meuwissen SGM, Crusius JBA, Pena AS, Dekker-Saeys A, Dijkmans BAC. Spondylarthropathy and idiopathic inflammatory bowel diseases. Inflamm Bowel Dis 1997;3:25–37.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan KL. Johne’s and Crohn’s. Chronic inflammatory bowel disease of infectious aetiology? Lancet 1987;i:1017–9.
   Google Scholar
• Chiodini RJ, van Kruiningen HJ, Thayer Jr WR, Merkal RS, Coutu JA. Possible role of mycobacteria in inflammatory bowel disease. An unclassifi ed mycobacterium species isolated from patients with Crohn’s disease. Dig Dis Sci 1984;29: 1073–9.
   Google Scholar
• Elsaghier A, Prantera C, Moreno C, Ivanyi J. Antibodies to Mycobacterium paratuberculosis-specific antigen in Crohn’s disease. Clin Exp Immunol 1992;90:503–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stainsby KJ, Lowes JR, Allan RN, Ibbotson JP. Antibodies to Mycobacterium paratuberculosis and nine species of environmental mycobacteria in Crohn’s disease and control subjects. Gut 1993;34:371–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanaka K, Wilks M, Coates PJ, Farthing MJ, Walker-Smith JA, Tabaqchali S. Mycobacterium paratuberculosis and Crohn’s disease. Gut 1991;31:43–5.
   Google Scholar
• Fidler HM, McFadden. Infective agents—mycobacteria. In: Kirsner JB, Shorter RG, editors. Inflammatory bowel disease, 4th ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1995. p. 125–31.
   Google Scholar
• Swift GL, Green JT, et al. Controlled trial of antituberculous chemotherapy in Crohn’s disease: a five-year follow-up study. Gut 1998;42:497–500.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muller HE. Listeria isolations from feces of patients with diarrhea and from healthy food handlers. Infection 1990;18: 97–100.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacDonald TT, Carter PB. Cell-mediated immunity to intestinal infection. Infect Immun 1980;28:516–23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu Y, Van Kruiningen HJ, West AB, Cartun RW, Cortot A, Colombel JF. Immunocytochemical evidence of Listeria, Escherichia coli, and Streptococcus antigens in Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterology 1995;108:1396–404.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blaser MJ, Miller RA, Lacher J, Singleton JW. Patients with active Crohn’s disease have elevated serum antibodies to antigens of seven enteric bacterial pathogens. Gastroenterology 1984;87:888–94.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernstein CN, Blanchard JF. Viruses and inflammatory bowel disease: Is there evidence for a causal association? Inflamm Bowel Dis 2000;6:34–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wakefield AJ, Pittilo RM, Sim R, Cosby SL, Stephenson JR, Dhillon AP, et al. Evidence of persistent measles virus infection in Crohn’s disease. J Med Virol 1993;39:345–53.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miyamoto H, Tanaka T, Kitamoto N, Fukada Y, Shivanada S. Detection of immunoreactive antigen with a monoclonal antibody to measles virus in tissue from patients with Crohn’s disease. J Gastroenterol 1995;30:28–33.
   Google Scholar
• Gitnick GL, Rosen VJ, Arthur MH, Hertwick SA. Evidence for the isolation of a new virus from ulcerative colitis patients. Dig Dis Sci 1979;24:609–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekbom A, Wakefield AJ, Zack M, Adami HO. Perinatal measles infection and subsequent Crohn’s disease. Lancet 1994;344:508–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekbom A, Daszak P, Kraaz W, Wakefield AJ. Crohn’s disease after in-utero measles virus exposure. Lancet 1996;348:515–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montgomery SM, Morris DL, Pounder RE, Wakefield AJ. Paramyxovirus infections in childhood and subsequent inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 1999;116:796–803.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones P, Fine P, Piracha S. Crohn’s disease and measles. Lancet 1997;349:473.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haga Y, Funakoshi O, Kuroe K, et al. Absence of measles viral genomic sequence in intestinal tissues from Crohn’s disease by nested polymerase chain reaction. Gut 1996;38:211–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Touze Y, Dubucquoi S, Cortot A, van Kruiningen HJ, Colombel JF. IgM-specific measles-virus antibody in families with a high frequency of Crohn’s disease. Lancet 1995;346: 967.
   Google Scholar
• Balzola FA, Castellino F, Colombatto P, Manzini P, Astegiano M, Verme G, et al. IgM antibody against measles virus in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: a marker of virus-related disease? Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1997;9:661–3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Metcalf J. Is measles infection associated with Crohn’s disease? Br Med J 1998;316:166.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iizuka M, Chiba M, Yukawa M, Nakagomi T, Fukushima T, Watanabe S, et al. Immunohistochemical analysis of the distribution of measles related antigen in the intestinal mucosa in inflammatory bowel disease. Gut 2000;46:163–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schuller JL, Veeken IVD, Picket van Ulsen J, Michel MF, Stolze E. Antibodies against Chlamydia of lymphogranuloma-venereum type in Crohn’s disease. Lancet 1979;1:19–20.
   Google Scholar
• Taylor-Robinson D, Thomas BJ, O’Morain CA, Levi AJ. Low frequency of chlamydial antibodies in patients with Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis. Lancet 1979;1:1162–3.
   Google Scholar
• Elliott PR, Forsey T, Darougar S, Treharine JD, Lennard-Jones JE. Chlamydiae and inflammatory bowel disease. Gut 1981; 22:25–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paganelli R, Pallone F, Montano S, et al. Isotypic analysis of antibody response to a food antigen in inflammatory bowel disease. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol 1985;78:81–5.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Knoflach P, Park BH, Cunningham R, Weiser MM, Albini B. Serum antibodies to cow’s milk proteins in ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterology 1987;92:479–85.
   Google Scholar
• Falchuk KR, Isselbacher KJ. Circulating antibodies to bovine albumin in ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease. Characteristics of the antibody response. Gastroenterology 1976;70:5–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barclay GR, McKenzie H, Pennington J, Parratt D, Pennington CR. The effect of dietary yeast on the activity of stable chronic Crohn’s disease. Scand J Gastroenterol 1992;27:196–200.
   Google Scholar
• Main J, McKenzie H, Yeaman GR, Kerr MA, Robson D, Pennington CR, et al. Antibody to Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker’s yeast) in Crohn’s disease. Br Med J 1988;297:105–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giaffer MH, Clark A, Holdsworth CD. Antibodies to Saccharomyces cerevisiae in patients with Crohn’s disease and their possible pathogenic importance. Gut 1992;33: 1071–5.
   Google Scholar
• Sendid B, Quinton J-F, Charrier G, Goulet O, Cortot A, Grandbastien B, et al. Anti-Saccharomyces cerevisiae mannan antibodies in familial Crohn’s disease. Am J Gastroenterol 1998;93: 1306–10.
   Google Scholar
• Darroch CJ, Barnes RMR, Dawson J. Circulating antibodies to Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker’ s/brewers’ yeast) in gastrointestinal disease. J Clin Path 1999;52:47–53.
   Google Scholar
• Sutton CL, Yang H, Li Z, Rotter JI, Targan SR, Braun J. Familial expression of anti-saccharomyces cerevisiae mannan antibodies in affected and unaffected relatives of patients with Crohn’s disease. Gut 2000;46:58–63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruemmele FM, Targan SR, Levy G, Dubinsky M, Braun J, Seidman EG. Diagnostic accuracy of serological assays in pediatric inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 1998; 115:822–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tabaqchali S, O’Donoghue DP, Bettelheim KA. Escherichia coli antibodies in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Gut 1978;19:108–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ambrose NS, Johnson M, Burdon DW, Keighley RB. Incidence of pathogenic bacteria from mesenteric lymph nodes and ileal serosa during Crohn’s disease surgery. Br J Surg 1984;71:623–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darfeuille-Michaud A, Neut C, Barnich N, et al. Presence of adherent Escherichia coli strains in ileal mucosa of patients with Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterology 1998;115: 1405–13.
   Google Scholar
• Bulois P, Desreumaux P, Neut C, Darfeuille-Michaud A, Cortot A, Colombel JF. Infectious agents and Crohn’s disease. Clin Microbiol Infect 1999;5:601–4.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Walmsley RS, Anthony A, Sim R, Pounder RE, Wakefield AJ. Absence of Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, and Klebsiella pneumoniae antigens within inflammatory bowel disease tissues. J Clin Pathol 1998;52: 657–61.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van de Merwe JP, Schmitz PIM, Wensinck F. Antibodies to Eubacterium and Peptostreptococcus species and the estimated probability of Crohn’s disease. J Hyg 1981;87:25–33.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wensinck F, van de Merwe JP. Serum agglutins to Eubacterium and Streptococcus species in Crohn’s and other diseases. J Hyg 1981;87:13–24.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wensinck F, Custers-van Lieshout LMC, Poppelaars-Kustermans PAJ, Schröder AM. The faecal flora of patients with Crohn’s disease. J Hyg 1981;87:1–12.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• van de Merwe JP, Schröder AM, Wensinck F, Hazenberg MP. The obligate anaerobic faecal flora of patients with Crohn’s disease and their first-degree relatives. Scand J Gastroenterol 1988;23:1125–31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rutgeerts P, Geboes K, Peeters M, Hiele M, Penninckx F, Aerts R, et al. Effect of faecal stream diversion on recurrence of Crohn’s disease in the neoterminal ileum. Lancet 1991; 338:771–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janowitz HD, Croen EC, Sachar DB. The role of the fecal stream in Crohn’s disease: an historical and analytic review. Inflam Bowel Dis 1998;4:29–39.
   Google Scholar
• D’Haens GR, Geboes K, Peeters M, Baert F, Penninckx F, Rutgeerts P. Early lesions of recurrent Crohn’s disease caused by infusion of intestinal contents in excluded ileum. Gastroenterology 1998;114:262–7.
   Google Scholar
• Sartor RB. Postoperative recurrence of Crohn’s disease: the enemy is within the fecal stream. Gastroenterology 1998;114: 398–407.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spirt MJ. Antibiotics in inflammatory bowel disease: new choices for an old disease. Am J Gastroenterol 1994;89:974–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mantzaris GJ, Hatzis A, Kontogiannis P, Triadaphyllou G. Intravenous tobramycin and metronidazole as an adjunct to corticosteroids in acute, severe ulcerative colitis. Am J Gastroenterol 1994;89:43–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peppercorn MA. Are antibiotics useful in the management of nontoxic severe ulcerative colitis? J Clin Gastroenterol 1993; 17:14–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dickinson RJ, O’Connor HJ, Pinder I, Hamilton J, Johnston D, Axon ATR. Double blind controlled trial of oral vancomycin in acute exacerbations of idiopathic colitis. Gut 1985;26: 1380–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mantzaris GJ, Archavlis E, Christoforidis P, Kourtessas D, Amberiadis P, Florakis N, et al. A prospective randomized controlled trial of oral ciprofloxacin in acute ulcerative colitis. Am J Gastroenterol 1997;92:454–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chapman RW, Selby WS, Jewell DP. Controlled trial of intravenous metronidazole as an adjunct to corticosteroids in severe ulcerative colitis. Gut 1986;27:1210–2.
   Google Scholar
• Burke DA, Axon ATR, Clayden SA, Dixon MF, Johnston D, Lacey RW. The efficacy of tobramycin in the treatment of ulcerative colitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1990;4:123–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lobo AJ, Burke DA, Sobala GM, Axon AT. Oral tobramycin in ulcerative colitis: effect on maintenance of remission. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1993;7:155–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casellas F, Borruel N, Papo M, Guarner F, Antolin M, Videla S, et al. Antiinflammatory effects of enterically coated amoxicillin-clavulanic acid in active ulcerative colitis. Inflamm Bowel Dis 1998;4:1–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gionchetti P, Rizzello F, Ferrieri A, Venturi A, Brignola C, Ferretti M, et al. Rifaximin in patients with moderate or severe ulcerative colitis refractory to steroid-treatment: a doubleblind, placebo-controlled trial. Dig Dis Sci 1999;44:1220–1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stein R, Hanauer SB. Life-threatening complications of IBD: How to handle fulminant colitis and toxic megacolon. J Crit Illness 1998;13:518–21.
   Google Scholar
• Madden MV, McIntyre AS, Nicholls RJ. Double-blind crossover trial of metronidazole versus placebo in chronic remitting pouchitis. Dig Dis Sci 1994;39:1193–6.
   Google Scholar
• Gionchetti P, Rizello F, Venturi A, Ugolini F, Rossi M, Brigidi P, et al. Antibiotic combination therapy in patients with chronic, treatment-resistant pouchitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1999;13:713–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker JM, Onderdonk AB. Bacterial dysbiosis in the pathogenesis of ileal pouchitis. Gastroenterology 1994;106:A650.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruseler-van Embden JGH, Schouten WR, van Lieshout LMC. Pouchitis: result of microbial imbalance? Gut 1994;35:658–64.
   Google Scholar
• Sandborn WJ. Pouchitis following ileal pouch-anal anastomosis: definition, pathogenesis, and treatment. Gastroenterology 1994;107:1856–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ursing B, Alm T, Barany F, Bergelin I, Ganrot-Norlin K, Hoevels J, et al. A comparative study of metronidazole and sulfasalazine for active Crohn’s disease: the cooperative Crohn’s disease study in Sweden. Gastroenterology 1982;83: 550–62.
   Google Scholar
• Sutherland L, Singleton J, Sessions J, Hanauer S, Krawitt E, Rankin G, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of metronidazole in Crohn’s disease. Gut 1991;32:1071–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prantera C, Zannoni F, Scribano ML, Berto E, Andreoli A, Kohn A, et al. An antibiotic regimen for the treatment of active Crohn’s disease: a randomized, controlled clinical trial of metronidazole plus ciprofloxacin. Am J Gastroenterol 1996;91: 328–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prantera C, Berto E, Scribano ML, Falasco G. Use of antibiotics in the treatment of active Crohn’s disease: experience with metronidazole and ciproxin. Ital J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1998;30:602–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenbloom SL, Steinhart AH, Greenberg GR. Combination ciprofloxacin and metronidazole for active Crohn’s disease. Can J Gastroenterol 1998;12:53–6.
   Google Scholar
• Colombel JF, Lemann M, Cassagnou M, et al. A controlled trial comparing ciprofloxacin with mesalazine for the treatment of active Crohn’s disease. Am J Gastroenterol 1999;94:674–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rutgeerts P, Hiele M, Geboes K, et al. Controlled trial of metronidazole treatment for prevention of Crohn’s recurrence after ileal resection. Gastroenterology 1995;108:1617–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peppercorn MA. Is there a role for antibiotics as primary therapy in Crohn’s ileitis? J Clin Gastroenterol 1993;17: 235–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jakobovits J, Schuster MM. Metronidazole therapy for Crohn’s disease and associated fistulae. Am J Gastroenterol 1984;79: 533–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brandt LJ, Bernstein LH, Boley SJ, Frank MS. Metronidazole therapy for perineal Crohn’s disease: a follow-up study. Gastroenterology 1982;83:383–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solomon MJ, McLeod RS, O’Connor BI, Steinhart AH, Greenberg GR, Cohen Z. Combination ciprofloxacin and metronidazole in severe perianal Crohn’s disease. Can J Gastroenterol 1993;7:571–3.
   Google Scholar
• Geerling BJ, Stockbrugger RW, Brummer R-JM. Nutrition and inflammatory bowel disease: an update. Scand J Gastroenterol 1999; Suppl 230:95–105.
   Google Scholar
• Greenberg GR, Fleming CR, Jeejeebhoy KN, Rosenberg IH, Sales D, Tremaine WJ. Controlled trial of bowel rest and nutritional support in the management of Crohn’s disease. Gut 1988;29:1309–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rigaud D, Cosnes J, Le Quintrec Y, Rene E, Gendre J, Mignon M, et al. Controlled trial comparing two types of enteral nutrition in treatment of active Crohn’s disease: elemental versus polymeric diet. Gut 1991;32:1492–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schaafsma G. State of the art concerning probiotic strains in milk products. IDF Nutr Newsl 1996;5:241–5.
   Google Scholar
• Bengmark S. Ecological control of the gastrointestinal tract. The role of probiotic flora. Gut 1998;42:2–7.
   Google Scholar
• Venturi A, Gionchetti P, Rizello F, Johansson R, Zucconi E, Brigidi P, et al. Impact on the composition of the faecal flora by a new probiotic preparation: preliminary data on maintenance treatment of patients with ulcerative colitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1999;13:1103–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tuomola EM, Ouwehand AC, Salminen SJ. The effect of probiotic bacteria on the adhesion of pathogens to human intestinal mucus. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 1999;26: 137–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis SJ, Freedman AR. Review article: the use of biotherapeutic agents in the prevention and treatment of gastrointestinal disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1998;12:807–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gorbach SL, Chang T, Goldin B. Successful treatment of relapsing Clostridium difficile colitis with Lactobacillus GG. Lancet 1987;ii:1519.
   Google Scholar
• Campieri M, Gionchetti P. Probiotics in inflammatory bowel disease: new insights to pathogenesis or a possible therapeutic alternative? Gastroenterology 1999;116:1246–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schultz M, Sartor RB. Probiotics and inflammatory bowel diseases. Am J Gastroenterol 2000;95:S19–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fabia R, Ar’Rajab A, Johansson ML, Andersson R, Willen R, Jeppson B, et al. Impairment of bacterial flora in human ulcerative colitis and experimental colitis in rats. Digestion 1993;54:248–55.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kruis W, Schütz E, Fric P, Fixa B, Judmaiers G, Stolte M. Double-blind comparison of an oral Escherichia coli preparation and mesalazine in maintaining remission of ulcerative colitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1997;11:853–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rembacken BJ, Snelling AM, Hawkey PM, Chalmers DM, Axon ATR. Non-pathogenic Escherichia coli versus mesalazine for the treatment of ulcerative colitis: a randomised trial. Lancet 1999;354: 635–9.
   Google Scholar
• Bennet JD, Brinkman M. Treatment of ulcerative colitis with implantation of normal colonic flora. Lancet 1989;i:164.
   Google Scholar
• Gionchetti P, Rizzello F, Venturi A, et al. Maintenance treatment of chronic pouchitis: a randomised placebo-controlled trial with a new probiotic preparation. Gastroenterology 1998; 114:G4037.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Favier C, Neut C, Mizon C, Cortot A, Colombel JF, Mizon J. Fecal β-d-galactosidase production and bifidobacteria are decreased in Crohn’s disease. Dig Dis Sci 1997;42:817–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malin M, Suomalainen H, Saxelin M, Isolauri E. Promotion of IgA immune response in patients with Crohn’s disease by oral bacteriotherapy with Lactobacillus GG. Ann Nutr Metab 1996;40:137–45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Molis C, Flourie B, Ouarne F, et al. Digestion, excretion, and energy value of fructooligosaccharides in healthy humans. Am J Clin Nutr 1996;64:324–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibson GR, Beatty ER, Wang X, Cummings JH. Selective stimulation of bifidobacteria in the human colon by oligofructose and inulin. Gastroenterology 1995;108:975–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar