How the Incomplete Medicalization of Cannabis Shapes Patient Experiences

References

• Abrams, Donald I., Paul Couey, Starley B. Shade, M. E. Kelly, and Neal L. Benowitz. 2011. “Cannabinoid-Opioid Interaction in Chronic Pain.” Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 90(6): 844–51. doi:10.1038/clpt.2011.188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexandra, Sideris, Fahad Khan, Alina Boltunova, Germaine Cuff, Christopher Gharibo, and Lisa V. Doan. 2018. “New York Physicians’ Perspectives and Knowledge of the State Medical Marijuana Program.” Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research 3(1): 74–84. doi:10.1089/can.2017.0046.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Athey, Nicholas, Neil Boyd, and Elysha Cohen. 2017. “Becoming a Medical Marijuana User: Reflections on Becker’s Trilogy—Learning Techniques, Experiencing Effects, and Perceiving Those Effects as Enjoyable.” Contemporary Drug Problems 44(3): 212–31. doi:10.1177/0091450917721206.
   Google Scholar
• Ballard, K. and M. A. Elston. 2005. “Medicalisation: A Multi-Dimensional Concept.” Social Theory & Health 3(3): 228–41. doi:10.1057/palgrave.sth.8700053.
   Google Scholar
• Ballotpedia. 2019. “Michigan Medical Marijuana Initiative, Proposal.” 1 2008. https://ballotpedia.org/Michigan_Medical_Marijuana_Initiative,_Proposal_1_(2008)
   Google Scholar
• Barker, K. K. 2014. “Mindfulness Meditation: Do-It-Yourself Medicalization of Every Moment.” Social Science & Medicine 106: 168–76. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.01.024.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beau, Kilmer and Robert J. MacCoun. 2017. “How Medical Marijuana Smoothed the Transition to Marijuana Legalisation in the United States.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 13: 181–202. doi:10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-110615-084851.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berg, Bruce L. 2009. Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
   Google Scholar
• Biolchini, A. 2019 July 9. “Michigan’s Medical Marijuana Market Could Crash after Recreational Shops Launch.” MLive. https://www.mlive.com/news/2019/07/michigans-medical-marijuana-market-could-crash-after-recreational-shops-launch.html.
   Google Scholar
• Bloor, Michael, Jane Frankland, Michelle Thomas, and Kate Robson. 2001. Focus Groups in Social Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Boddy, C. R. 2016. “Sample Size for Qualitative Research.” Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal 19(4): 426–32. doi:10.1108/QMR-06-2016-0053.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boehnke, Kevin F., Evangelos Litinas, and Daniel J. Clauw. 2016. “Medical Cannabis Use Is Associated with Decreased Opiate Medication Use in a Retrospective Cross-Sectional Survey of Patients with Chronic Pain.” The Journal of Pain 17(6): 739–44. doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2016.03.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bostwick, J. Michael 2012. “Blurred Boundaries: The Therapeutics and Politics of Medical Marijuana.” Mayo Clinic Proceedings 87(2):172–86.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bottorff, Joan L., Laura J.L. Bissell, Lynda G. Balneaves, John L. Oliffe, H. Bindy K. Kang, N. Rielle Capler, Jane. A. Buxton, and Robin K. O’Brien. 2011. “Health Effects of Using Cannabis for Therapeutic Purposes: A Gender Analysis of Users’ Perspectives.” Substance Use & Misuse 46(6): 769–80. doi:10.3109/10826084.2010.537732.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bottorff, Joan L., Laura JL Bissell, Lynda G. Balneaves, John L Oliffe, N Rielle Capler, and Jane Buxton. 2013. “Perceptions of Cannabis as A Stigmatised Medicine: A Qualitative Descriptive Study.” Harm Reduction Journal 10(2): 1–10. doi:10.1186/1477-7517-10-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broom, D. H. and R. Woodward. 1996. “Medicalisation Reconsidered: Toward a Collaborative Approach to Care.” Sociology of Health & Illness 18(3): 357–78. doi:10.1111/1467-9566.ep10934730.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, Phil, Stephen Zavestoski, Sabrina McCormick, Brian Mayer, Rachel Morello-Frosch, and Rebecca Gasior Altman. 2004. “Embodied Health Movements: New Approaches to Social Movements in Health.” Sociology of Health & Illness 26(1): 50–80. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9566.2004.00378.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell, Nancy D. 2012. “Medicalization and Biomedicalization: Does the Diseasing of Addicting Fit the Frame?” Advances in Medical Sociology 14: 3–25.
   Google Scholar
• Castaneda, C. 1968. The Teachings of Don Juan: A Yaqui Way of Knowledge. Berkeley: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2018. “Well-Being Concepts.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Accessed September 12, 2021. https://www.cdc.gov/hrqol/wellbeing.htm
   Google Scholar
• Chapkis, Wendy. 2007. “Cannabis, Consciousness, and Healing.” Contemporary Justice Review 10(4): 443–60. doi:10.1080/10282580701677550.
   Google Scholar
• Choo, Esther K., Sarah W. Feldstein, and Travis I. Lovejoy. 2016. “Opioids Out, Cannabis In: Negotiating the Unknowns in Patient Care for Chronic Pain.” Journal of the American Medical Association 316(17): 1763–64. doi:10.1001/jama.2016.13677.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conrad, Peter. 1979. “Types of Medical Social Control.” Sociology of Health & Illness 1(1): 1–11. doi:10.1111/1467-9566.ep11006751.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Conrad, Peter. 1992. “Medicalization and Social Control.” Annual Review of Sociology 18(1): 209–32. doi:10.1146/annurev.so.18.080192.001233.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conrad, Peter. 2005. “The Shifting Engines of Medicalization.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 46(1): 3–14. doi:10.1177/002214650504600102.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conrad, Peter. 2007. The Medicalization of Society: On the Transformation of Human Conditions into Treatable Disorders. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Conrad, Peter and Valerie Leiter. 2004. “Medicalization, Markets and Consumers.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 45: 158–76.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conrad, Peter and Joseph W. Schneider. [1980] 1992. Deviance and Medicalization: From Badness to Sickness. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Craig, Jones and Andrew D. Hathaway. 2008. “Marijuana Medicine and Canadian Physicians: Challenges to Meaningful Drug Policy Reform.” Contemporary Justice Review 11(2): 165–75. doi:10.1080/10282580802058429.
   Google Scholar
• DeAngelo, Steve. 2015. The Cannabis Manifesto: A New Paradigm for Wellness. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books.
   Google Scholar
• Dioun, C. 2018. “Negotiating Moral Boundaries: Social Movements and the Strategic (Re)definition of the Medical in Cannabis Markets.” Research in the Sociology of Organisations 56: 53–82.
   Google Scholar
• Dumit, Joseph. 2012. Drugs for Life: How Pharmaceutical Companies Define Our Health. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fischer, Benedikt, Yoko Murphy, Paul Kurdyak, Elliot Goldner, and Jurgen Rehm. 2015. “Medical Marijuana Programs: Why Might They Matter for Public Health and Why Should We Better Understand Their Impacts?” Preventative Medicine Reports 2: 53–56. doi:10.1016/j.pmedr.2014.12.006.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Frye, Patricia C. 2018. The Medical Marijuana Guide: Cannabis and Your Health. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Garner, Emily. 2016. “A Phenomenology of Marijuana Use among Graduate Students.” Indo-Pacific Journal of Phenomenology 16(sup1): 111–27. doi:10.1080/20797222.2016.1164997.
   Google Scholar
• Grinspoon, Lester. 1999. “Medical Marihuana in a Time of Prohibition.” International Journal of Drug Policy 10(2): 145–56. doi:10.1016/S0955-3959(99)00009-2.
   Google Scholar
• Haines, Rebecca J., Joy L. Johnson, Connie I. Carter, and Kamal Arora. 2009. “’I Couldn’t Say I’m Not a Girl’—Adolescents Talk about Gender and Marijuana Use.” Social Science & Medicine 68(11): 2029–36. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.03.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall, Wayne and Michael Lynskey. 2016. “Evaluating the Public Health Impacts of Legalising Recreational Cannabis Use in the United States.” Addiction 111(10): 1764–73. doi:10.1111/add.13428.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haug, Nancy A., Dustin Kieschnick, James E. Sottile, Kimberly A. Babson, Ryan Vandrey, and Marcel O. Bonn-Miller. 2016. “Training and Practices of Cannabis Dispensary Staff.” Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research 1(1): 244–51. doi:10.1089/can.2016.0024.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Health Canada. 2019. “Data on Cannabis for Medical Purposes.” Accessed June 3, 2019. https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/drugs-medication/cannabis/research-data/medical-purpose.html.
   Google Scholar
• Hollander, Jocelyn A. 2004. “The Social Contexts of Focus Groups.” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 33(5): 602–37. doi:10.1177/0891241604266988.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jarvinen, Margaretha and Jakob Demant. 2011. “The Normalisation of Cannabis Use among Young People: Symbolic Boundary Work in Focus Groups.” Health, Risk & Society 13(2): 165–82. doi:10.1080/13698575.2011.556184.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, R. Burke. 2000. “Examining the Validity Structure of Qualitative Research.” Pp. 119–24. in Understanding Research Methods, 2nded., edited by M. L Patten. Los Angeles, CA: Pyrczak Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Kahan, Meldon and Anita Srivastava. 2007. “Is There a Role for Marijuana in Medicinal Practice? No.” Canadian Family Physician 53(1): 22–25.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kleber, H. D. and R.L. DuPont. 2012. “Physicians and Medical Marijuana.” American Journal of Psychiatry 169(6): 564–68. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12030373.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kondrad, Elin and Alfred Reid. 2013. “Colorado Family Physicians‘ Attitudes Toward Medical Marijuana.” Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine 26(1): 52–60. doi:10.3122/jabfm.2013.01.120089.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krieger, N. 1994. “Epidemiology and the Web of Causation: Has Anyone Seen the Spider?” Social Science & Medicine 39(7): 887–903. doi:10.1016/0277-9536(94)90202-X.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krueger, Richard A. and Mary Anne Casey. 2009. Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Kruger, Daniel J. and Jessica S. Kruger. 2019. “Medical Cannabis Users’ Comparisons between Medical Cannabis and Mainstream Medicine.” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 51(1): 31–36. doi:10.1080/02791072.2018.1563314.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lankenau, S. E., A. Kioumarsi, M. Reed, M. McNeeley, E. Iverson, and C. F. Wong. 2018. “Becoming a Medical Marijuana User.” International Journal of Drug Policy 52: 62–70. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2017.11.018.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, Martin A. 2012. Smoke Signals: A Social History of Marijuana—Medical, Recreational, and Scientific. New York: Simon & Schuster.
   Google Scholar
• McCarthy, K. T. 2004. “Conversations about Medical Marijuana between Physicians and Their Patients.” The Journal of Legal Medicine 25(3): 333–49. doi:10.1080/01947640490497015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michelle, Sexton, Carrie Cuttler, John S. Finnell, and Laurie K. Mischley. 2016. “A Cross-Sectional Survey of Medical Cannabis Users: Patterns of Use and Perceived Efficacy.” Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research 1(1): 131–38. doi:10.1089/can.2016.0007.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Morgan, David L. 1997. Focus Groups as Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL). 2021 August 23. State Medical Marijuana Laws. National Conference of State Legislatures. https://www.ncsl.org/research/health/state-medical-marijuana-laws.aspx
   Google Scholar
• Newhart, Michelle and William Dolphin. 2019. The Medicalization of Marijuana: Legitimacy, Stigma, and the Patient Experience. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Nussbaum, Abraham M., Jonathan A. Boyer, and Elin C. Kondrad. 2011. “’But My Doctor Recommended Pot’: Medical Marijuana and the Patient-Physician Relationship.” Journal of General Internal Medicine 26(11): 1364–67. doi:10.1007/s11606-011-1840-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Brien, Patrick K. 2013. “Medical Marijuana and Social Control: Escaping Criminalisation and Embracing Medicalization.” Deviant Behavior 34(6): 423–43. doi:10.1080/01639625.2012.735608.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Page, Stacy A. and Marja J. Verhoef. 2006. “Medical Marijuana Users: Experiences of People with Multiple Sclerosis.” Canadian Family Physician 52: 65–77.
   Google Scholar
• Pedersen, Willy. 2015. “From Badness to Illness: Medical Cannabis and Self-Diagnosed Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.” Addiction Research & Theory 23(3): 177–86. doi:10.3109/16066359.2014.954556.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pedersen, Willy and Sveinung Sandberg. 2013. “The Medicalization of Revolt: A Sociological Analysis of Medical Cannabis Users.” Sociology of Health & Illness 35(1): 17–32. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9566.2012.01476.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Penn, Rebecca A. 2014. “Establishing Expertise: Canadian Community-Based Medical Cannabis Dispensaries as Embodied Health Movement Organisations.” International Journal of Drug Policy 25(3): 372–77. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2013.12.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peter, Conrad and Kristin K. Barker. 2010. “The Social Construction of Illness: Key Insights and Policy Implications.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 51(S): S67–S79. doi:10.1177/0022146510383495.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reid, M. 2021. “Troubling Claims of Normalization: Continuing Stigmas within Michigan’s Medical Cannabis Community.” Deviant Behavior. 1–20. doi:10.1080/01639625.2021.1953947.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rendon, Jim. 2012. Super Charged: How Outlaws, Hippies, and Scientists Reinvented Marijuana. Portland, OR: Timber Press.
   Google Scholar
• Reveley, J. 2016. “Neoliberal Meditations: How Mindfulness Training Medicalizes Education and Responsibilizes Young People.” Policy Futures in Education 14(4): 497–511. doi:10.1177/1478210316637972.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosa, W. E., S. Hope, and M. Matzo. 2019. “Palliative Nursing and Sacred Medicine: A Holistic Stance on Entheogens, Healing, and Spiritual Care.” Journal of Holistic Nursing 37(1): 100–06. doi:10.1177/0898010118770302.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roubein, Rachel 2019. “The Budtender Will See You Now.” Politico.com, December 7. https://www.politico.com/news/2019/12/07/the-budtender-will-see-you-now-077314.
   Google Scholar
• Rubens, Muni. 2014. “Political and Medical Views on Medical Marijuana and Its Future.” Social Work in Public Health 29(2): 121–31. doi:10.1080/19371918.2013.821351.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryan, Jennie and Nancy Sharts-Hopko. 2017. “The Experiences of Medical Marijuana Patients: A Scoping Review of the Qualitative Literature.” Journal of Neuroscience Nursing 49(3): 185–90. doi:10.1097/JNN.0000000000000283.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandelowski, M. 1995. “Sample Size in Qualitative Research.” Research in Nursing & Health 18(2): 179–83. doi:10.1002/nur.4770180211.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Satterlund, Travis D., Juliet P. Lee, and Roland S. Moore. 2015. “Stigma Among California’s Medical Marijuana Patients.” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 47(1): 10–17. doi:10.1080/02791072.2014.991858.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shim, Janet K. 2010. “Cultural Health Capital: A Theoretical Approach to Understanding Health Care Interactions and the Dynamics of Unequal Treatment.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 51(1): 1–15. doi:10.1177/0022146509361185.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sointu, Eeva. 2006. “The Search for Wellbeing in Alternative and Complementary Health Practices.” Sociology of Health & Illness 28(3): 330–49. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9566.2006.00495.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stith, S. S. and J. M. Vigil. 2016. “Federal Barriers to Cannabis Research.” Science 352(6290): 1182. doi:10.1126/science.aaf7450.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). 1988. Marijuana Rescheduling Petition, DEA Docket No. 86–22. United States Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration.
   Google Scholar
• Victorson, David, Megan McMahon, Bruriah Horowitz, Sydney Glickson, Brandy Parker, and Leslie Mendoza-Temple. 2019. “Exploring Cancer Survivors’ Attitudes, Perceptions, and Concerns about Using Medical Cannabis for Symptom and Side Effect Management: A Qualitative Focus Group Study.” Complementary Therapies in Medicine 47: 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2019.102204.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webb, C. W. and S. M. Webb. 2014. “Therapeutic Benefits of Cannabis: A Patient Survey.” Hawaii Journal of Medicine & Public Health 73(4): 109–11.
   Google Scholar
• Weiss, G.L. and D.A. Copelton. 2021. The Sociology of Health, Healing, and Illness. 10th ed. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Wendy, Chapkis and Richard J. Webb. 2008. Dying to Get High: Marijuana as Medicine. New York: New York University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Werner, C.A. 2001. “Medical Marijuana and the AIDS Crisis.” Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics 1(3/4): 17–33. doi:10.1300/J175v01n03_03.
   Google Scholar
• Williams, S. J., P. Martin, and J. Gabe. 2011. “The Pharmaceuticalisation of Society? A Framework for Analysis.” Sociology of Health & Illness 33(5): 710–25. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9566.2011.01320.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaller, N., A. Topletz, S. Frater, G. Yates, and M. Lally. 2015. “Profiles of Medicinal Cannabis Patients Attending Compassion Centers in Rhode Island.” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 47(1): 18–23. doi:10.1080/02791072.2014.999901.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zolotov, Y., Y. Baruch, H. Reuveni, and R. Magnezi. 2016. “Adherence to Medical Cannabis among Licensed Patients in Israel.” Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research 1(1): 16–21. doi:10.1089/can.2015.0003.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar