A systematic review of rural-specific barriers to medication treatment for opioid use disorder in the United States

References

• Hedegaard H, Warner M, Miniño AM. Drug overdose deaths in the United States, 1999–2015. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics; 2017. NCHS data brief, no 273.
   Google Scholar
• Roxburgh A, Hall WD, Dobbins T, Gisev N, Burns L, Pearson S, Degenhardt L. Trends in heroin and pharmaceutical opioid overdose deaths in Australia. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2017;179:291–98. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.07.018.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belzak L, Halverson J. Evidence synthesis – the opioid crisis in Canada: a national perspective. Health Promot Chronic Dis Prev Can. 2018;38:224–33. doi:10.24095/hpcdp.38.6.02.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mack KA, Jones CM, Ballesteros MF. Illicit drug use, illicit drug use disorders, and drug overdose deaths in metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas—United States. Am J Transplant. 2017;17:3241–52. doi:10.1111/ajt.14555.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Department of Health and Human Services. HHS acting secretary declares public health emergency to address national opioid crisis. 2017. https://www.hhs.gov/about/news/2017/10/26/hhs-acting-secretary-declares-public-health-emergency-address-national-opioid-crisis.html [last accessed 14 July 2019].
   Google Scholar
• Lister JJ. The opioid crisis is at its worse in rural areas: can telemedicine help? The conversation. 2017. https://theconversation.com/the-opioid-crisis-is-at-its-worst-in-rural-areas-can-telemedicine-help-86598 [last accessed 14 July 2019].
   Google Scholar
• National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). 2016–2020 Strategic Plan: advancing Addiction Science. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Service; 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Sigmon SC. Access to treatment for opioid dependence in rural America: challenges and future directions. JAMA Psychiatry. 2014;71:359–60. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.4450.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sigmon SC. The untapped potential of office-based buprenorphine treatment. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015;72:395–96. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.2421.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood P, Opie C, Tucci J, Franklin R, Anderson K. “A lot of people call it liquid handcuffs”– barriers and enablers to opioid replacement therapy in a rural area. J Subst Use. 2019;24:150–55. doi:10.1080/14659891.2018.1523968.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amato L, Davoli M, Perucci CA, Ferri M, Faggiano F, Mattick RP. An overview of systematic reviews of the effectiveness of opiate maintenance therapies: available evidence to inform clinical practice and research. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2005;28:321–29. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2005.02.007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mattick RP, Breen C, Kimber J, Davoli M. Buprenorphine maintenance versus placebo or methadone maintenance for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;CD002207.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volkow ND, Frieden TR, Hyde PS, Cha SS. Medication-assisted therapies—tackling the opioid-overdose epidemic. N Engl J Med. 2014;370:2063–66. doi:10.1056/NEJMp1402780.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Medication-assisted treatment. 2019. https://www.samhsa.gov/medication-assisted-treatment [last accessed 14 July 2019].
   Google Scholar
• Salamina G, Diecidue R, Vigna-Taglianti F, Jarre P, Schifano P, Bargagli AM, Davoli M, Amato L, Perucci CA, Faggiano F, et al. Effectiveness of therapies for heroin addiction in retaining patients in treatment: results from the VEdeTTE study. Subst Use Misuse. 2010;45:2076–92.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenblum A, Cleland CM, Fong C, Kayman DJ, Tempalski B, Parrino M. Distance traveled and cross-state commuting to opioid treatment programs in the United States. J Environ Public Health. 2011;2011:948789. doi:10.1155/2011/948789.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ellis AR, Konrad TR, Thomas KC, Morrissey JP. County-level estimates of mental health professional supply in the United States. Psychiatr Serv. 2009;60:1315–22. doi:10.1176/ps.2009.60.10.1315.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaufman BG, Thomas SR, Randolph RK, Perry JR, Thompson KW. The rising rate of rural hospital closures. J Rural Health. 2016;32:35–43. doi:10.1111/jrh.12128.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunn KE, Barrett FS, Yepez-Laubach C, Meyer AC, Hruska BJ, Petrush K, Berman S, Sigmon SC, Fingerhood M, Bigelow GE. Opioid overdose experience, risk behaviors, and knowledge in drug users from a rural versus an urban setting. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2016;71:1–7. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2016.08.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Havens JR, Young AM, Havens CE. Nonmedical prescription drug use in a nationally representative sample of adolescents: evidence of greater use among rural adolescents. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2011;165:250–55. doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2010.217.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prunuske JP, Hill CA, Hager KD, Lemieux AM, Swanoski MT, Anderson GW, Nawal Lutfiyya M. Opioid prescribing patterns for non-malignant chronic pain for rural versus non-rural US adults: a population-based study using 2010 NAMCS data. BMC Health Serv Res. 2014;14:563. doi:10.1186/s12913-014-0563-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sorg MH. Patterns and trends of drug abuse in Maine: 2011 and early 2012. Epidemiologic trends in drug abuse. Proceedings of the Community Epidemiology Work Group Volume II; 2012; Bethesda, MD, National Institute of Drug Abuse, 157–68.
   Google Scholar
• Sullivan MD, Howe CQ. Opioid therapy for chronic pain in the United States: promises and perils. Pain. 2013;154:S94–100. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2013.09.009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang KH, Becker WC, Fiellin DA. Prevalence and correlates for nonmedical use of prescription opioids among urban and rural residents. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013;127:156–62. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.06.027.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wunsch MJ, Nakamoto K, Behonick G, Massello W. Opioid deaths in rural Virginia: a description of the high prevalence of accidental fatalities involving prescribed medications. Am J Addict. 2009;18:5–14. doi:10.1080/10550490802544938.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young AM, Havens JR, Leukefeld CG. Route of administration for illicit prescription opioids: a comparison of rural and urban drug users. Harm Reduct J. 2010;7:24. doi:10.1186/1477-7517-7-24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frank JW, Levy C, Calcaterra SL, Hoppe JA, Binswanger IA. Naloxone administration in US emergency departments, 2000–2011. J Med Toxicol. 2016;12:148–56. doi:10.1007/s13181-015-0525-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedegaard H, Miniño AM, Warner M. Urban–rural differences in drug overdose death rates, by sex, age, and type of drugs involved, 2017. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics; 2019. NCHS Data Brief, no 345.
   Google Scholar
• Scholl L, Seth P, Kariisa M, Wilson N, Baldwin G. Drug and opioid-involved overdose deaths—United States, 2013–2017. MMWR Morb Mortal Weekly Rep. 2019;67:1419–27.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Results from the 2012 national survey on drug use and health: summary of national findings. Rockville, MD; 2013. NSDUH Series H-46, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 13-4795.
   Google Scholar
• Martins SS, Sarvet A, Santaella-Tenorio J, Saha T, Grant BF, Hasin DS. Changes in US lifetime heroin use and heroin use disorder: prevalence from the 2001–2002 to 2012–2013 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. JAMA Psychiatry. 2017;74:445–55. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.0113.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armstrong GL. Injection drug users in the United States, 1979–2002. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167:166–73. doi:10.1001/archinte.167.2.166.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stoltman JJ, Woodcock EA, Lister JJ, Greenwald MK, Lundahl LH. Exploration of the telescoping effect among not-in-treatment, intensive heroin-using research volunteers. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2015;148:217–20. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.01.010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brener L, Spooner C, Treloar C. Preventing transitions to injecting amongst young people: what is the role of needle and syringe programmes? Int J Drug Policy. 2010;21:160–64. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2009.03.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Des Jarlais D, Bramson H, Wong C, Gostnell K, Cepeda J, Arasteh K, Hagan H. Racial/ethnic disparities in HIV infection among people who inject drugs: an international systematic review and meta-analysis. Addiction. 2012;107:2087–95. doi:10.1111/add.2012.107.issue-12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roy E, Arruda N, Bruenau J, Jutras-Aswad D. Epidemiology of injection drug use: new trends and prominent issues. Can J Psychiatry. 2016;61:136–44. doi:10.1177/0706743716632503.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wenger L, Lopez A, Kral A, Bluthenthal R. Moral ambivalence and the decision to initiate others into injection drug use: a qualitative study in two California cities. Int J Drug Policy. 2016;37:42–51. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.07.008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Case A, Deaton A. Mortality and morbidity in the 21st century. Brookings Pap Econ Act. 2017;397–476. doi:10.1353/eca.2017.0005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stein EM, Gennuso KP, Ugboaja DC, Remington PL. The epidemic of despair among White Americans: trends in the leading causes of premature death, 1999–2015. Am J Public Health. 2017;107:1541–47. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2017.303941.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown JD, Goodin AJ, Talbert JC. Rural and Appalachian disparities in neonatal abstinence syndrome incidence and access to opioid abuse treatment. J Rural Health. 2018;34:6–13. doi:10.1111/jrh.12251.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeFlavio JR, Rolin SA, Nordstrom BR, Kazal LA Jr. Analysis of barriers to adoption of buprenorphine maintenance therapy by family physicians. Rural Remote Health. 2015;15:1–11.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dick AW, Pacula RL, Gordon AJ, Sorbero M, Burns RM, Leslie DL, Stein BD. Increasing potential access to opioid agonist treatment in U.S. treatment shortage areas. Health Aff (Millwood). 2015;34:1028–34. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2014.1205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heil SH, Sigmon SC, Jones HE, Wagner M. Comparison of characteristics of opioid-using pregnant women in rural and urban settings. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2008;34:463–71. doi:10.1080/00952990802122358.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirchak KA, Murphy SM. Assessing differences in the availability of opioid addiction therapy options: rural versus urban and American Indian reservation versus nonreservation. J Rural Health. 2017;33:102–09. doi:10.1111/jrh.2017.33.issue-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones EB. Medication‐assisted opioid treatment prescribers in Federally Qualified Health Centers: capacity lags in rural areas. J Rural Health. 2018;34:14–22. doi:10.1111/jrh.12260.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kvamme E, Catlin M, Banta-Green C, Roll J, Rosenblatt R. Who prescribes buprenorphine for rural patients? The impact of specialty, location and practice type in Washington State. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2013;44:355–60. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2012.07.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCarty D, Rieckmann T, Green C, Gallon S, Knudsen J. Training rural practitioners to use buprenorphine: using The Change Book to facilitate technology transfer. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2004;26:203–08. doi:10.1016/S0740-5472(03)00247-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer M, Benvenuto A, Howard D, Johnston A, Plante D, Metayer J, Mandell T. Development of a substance abuse program for opioid-dependent nonurban pregnant women improves outcome. J Addict Med. 2012;6:124–30. doi:10.1097/ADM.0b013e3182541933.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenblatt RA, Andrilla CH, Catlin M, Larson EH. Geographic and specialty distribution of US physicians trained to treat opioid use disorder. Ann Fam Med. 2015;13:23–26. doi:10.1370/afm.1735.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stein BD, Gordon AJ, Sorbero M, Dick AW, Schuster J, Farmer C. The impact of buprenorphine on treatment of opioid dependence in a Medicaid population: recent service utilization trends in the use of buprenorphine and methadone. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2012;123:72–78. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.10.016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stein BD, Pacula RL, Gordon AJ, Burns RM, Leslie DL, Sorbero MJ, Bauhoff S, Mandell TW, Dick AW. Where is buprenorphine dispensed to treat opioid use disorders? The role of private offices, opioid treatment programs, and substance abuse treatment facilities in urban and rural counties. Milbank Q. 2015;93:561–83. doi:10.1111/milq.2015.93.issue-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Unger AS, Martin PR, Kaltenbach K, Stine SM, Heil SH, Jones HE, Arria AM, Coyle MG, Selby P, Fischer G. Clinical characteristics of central European and North American samples of pregnant women screened for opioid agonist treatment. Eur Addict Res. 2010;16:99–107. doi:10.1159/000284683.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wingrove P, Park B, Bazemore A. Rural opioid use disorder treatment depends on family physicians. Am Fam Physician. 2016;94:546.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andrilla CH, Coulthard C, Larson EH. Barriers rural physicians face prescribing buprenorphine for opioid use disorder. Ann Fam Med. 2017;15:359–62. doi:10.1370/afm.2099.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hutchinson E, Catlin M, Andrilla CH, Baldwin LM, Rosenblatt RA. Barriers to primary care physicians prescribing buprenorphine. Ann Fam Med. 2014;12:128–33. doi:10.1370/afm.1595.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quest TL, Merrill JO, Roll J, Saxon AJ, Rosenblatt RA. Buprenorphine therapy for opioid addiction in rural Washington: the experience of the early adopters. J Opioid Manag. 2012;8:29–38. doi:10.5055/jom.2012.0093.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Penchansky R, Thomas JW. The concept of access: definition and relationship to consumer satisfaction. Med Care. 1981;19:127–40. doi:10.1097/00005650-198102000-00001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Human J, Wasem C. Rural mental health in America. Am Psychol. 1991;46:232–39. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.46.3.232.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohatt DF, Bradley MM, Adams SJ. Rural mental health: challenges and opportunities caring for the country. In: Cummings NA, O’Donohue WT, Cucciare MA, editors. Universal healthcare: readings for mental health professionals. Reno: Context Press; 2005. p. 127–50.
   Google Scholar
• US Census Bureau. Census Bureau regions and divisions with state FIPS codes. 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Eibl JK, Gauthier G, Pellegrini D, Daiter J, Varenbut M, Hogenbirk JC, Marsh DC. The effectiveness of telemedicine-delivered opioid agonist therapy in a supervised clinical setting. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2017;176:133–38. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.01.048.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin LA, Casteel D, Shigekawa E, Weyrich MS, Roby DH, McMenamin SB. Telemedicine-delivered treatment interventions for substance use disorders: a systematic review. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2019;101:38–49. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2019.03.007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knopf A. Ryan Haight Act stands in way of buprenorphine telehealth. Alcohol Drug Abuse Weekly. 2018;29:7–8.
   Google Scholar
• Rubin R. Using telemedicine to treat opioid use disorder in rural areas. JAMA. 2019;322:1029–31. doi:10.1001/jama.2019.12574.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kvedar J, Coye MJ, Everett W. Connected health: a review of technologies and strategies to improve patient care with telemedicine and telehealth. Health Aff (Millwood). 2014;33:194–99. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2013.0992.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marsch LA, Guarino H, Acosta M, Aponte-Melendez Y, Cleland C, Grabinski M, Brady R, Edwards J. Web-based behavioral treatment for substance use disorders as a partial replacement of standard methadone maintenance treatment. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2014;46:43–51. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2013.08.012.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Powell KG, Treitler P, Peterson NA, Borys S, Hallcom D. Promoting opioid overdose prevention and recovery: an exploratory study of an innovative intervention model to address opioid abuse. Int J Drug Policy. 2019;64:21–29. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.12.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson RE, Hicken B, West A, Rupper R. The effect of increased travel reimbursement rates on health care utilization in the VA. J Rural Health. 2012;28:192–201. doi:10.1111/jrh.2012.28.issue-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaiyachati KH, Hubbard RA, Yeager A, Mugo B, Lopez S, Asch E, Shi C, Shea JA, Rosin R, Grande D. Association of rideshare-based transportation services and missed primary care appointments: a clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2018;178:383–89. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2017.8336.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Powers BW, Rinefort S, Jain SH. Nonemergency medical transportation: delivering care in the era of Lyft and Uber. JAMA. 2016;316:921–22. doi:10.1001/jama.2016.9970.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calcaterra SL, Bach P, Chadi A, Chadi N, Kimmel SD, Morford KL, Roy P, Samet JH. Methadone matters: what the United States can learn from the global effort to treat opioid addiction. J Gen Intern Med. 2019;34:1039–42. doi:10.1007/s11606-018-4801-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Molfenter T, Knudsen HK, Brown R, Jacobson N, Horst J, Van Etten M, Kim J-S, Haram E, Collier E, Starr S, et al. Test of a workforce development intervention to expand opioid use disorder treatment pharmacotherapy prescribers: protocol for a cluster randomized trial. Implement Sci. 2017;12:135.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palombi LC, Vargo J, Bennett L, Hendler J, Coughlin P, Winter G, LaRue A. A community partnership to respond to the heroin and opioid abuse epidemic. J Rural Health. 2017;33:110–13. doi:10.1111/jrh.2017.33.issue-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart H, Jameson JP, Curtin L. The relationship between stigma and self-reported willingness to use mental health services among rural and urban older adults. Psychol Serv. 2015;12:141–48. doi:10.1037/a0038651.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wrigley S, Jackson H, Judd F, Komiti A. Role of stigma and attitudes toward help-seeking from a general practitioner for mental health problems in a rural town. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2005;39:514–21. doi:10.1080/j.1440-1614.2005.01612.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/National Center for Health Statistics. Drug overdose mortality by state. 2019. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/pressroom/sosmap/drug_poisoning_mortality/drug_poisoning.htm [last accessed 22 October 2019].
   Google Scholar
• Lister JJ, Ellis JD, Yoon, M. Opioid prescribing and opioid-overdose deaths in Michigan: urban-rural comparisons and changes across 2013–2017. Addict Behav Rep. 2019. doi:10.1016/j.abrep.2019.100234.
   Google Scholar
• Knudsen HK. The supply of physicians waivered to prescribe buprenorphine for opioid use disorders in the United States: a state-level analysis. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2015;24:644–54. doi:10.15288/jsad.2015.76.644.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Naltrexone. 2016. https://www.samhsa.gov/medication-assisted-treatment/treatment/naltrexone [last accessed 14 July 2019].
   Google Scholar
• Schoen C, Osborn R, Squires D, Doty MM. Access, affordability, and insurance complexity are often worse in the United States compared to ten other countries. Health Aff (Millwood). 2013;32:2205–15. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2013.0879.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar