Kava (Piper methysticum) in the United States: the quiet rise of a substance with often subtle effects

References

• [accessed 2002 Apr 6]. https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/253875/1/PL-C133.483.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Volgin A, Yang L, Amstislavskaya T, Demin K, Wang D, Yan D, Wang J, Wang M, Alpyshov E, Hu G, et al. DARK classics in chemical neuroscience: kava. ACS Chem Neurosci. 2020;11:9b00587. doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.9b00587.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarris J, LaPorte E, Schweitzer I. Kava: a comprehensive review of efficacy, safety, and psychopharmacology. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2011;45:27–35. doi:10.3109/00048674.2010.522554.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh YN. Kava: an overview. J Ethnopharmacol. 1992;37:13–45. doi:10.1016/0378-8741(92)90003-A.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bian T, Corral P, Wang Y, Botello J, Kingston R, Daniels T, Salloum RG, Johnston E, Huo Z, Lu J, et al. Kava as a clinical nutrient: promises and challenges. Nutrients. 2020;12:10. doi:10.3390/nu12103044.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bilia AR, Gallon S, Vincieri FF. Kava-kava and anxiety: growing knowledge about the efficacy and safety. Life Sci. 2002;70:2581–97. doi:10.1016/S0024-3205(02)01555-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fu PP, Xia Q, Guo L, Yu H, Chan PC. Toxicity of kava kava. J Environ Sci Health C Environ Carcinog Ecotoxicol Rev. 2008;26:89–112. doi:10.1080/10590500801907407.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teschke R, Qiu SX, Lebot V. Herbal hepatotoxicity by kava: update on pipermethystine, flavokavain B, and mould hepatotoxins as primarily assumed culprits. Dig Liver Dis. 2011;43:676–81. doi:10.1016/j.dld.2011.01.018.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• White CM. The pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and adverse events associated with kava. J Clin Pharmacol. 2018;58:1396–405. doi:10.1002/jcph.1263.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davies LP, Drew CA, Duffield P, Johnston GA, Jamieson DD. Kava pyrones and resin: studies on GABAA, GABAB and benzodiazepine binding sites in rodent brain. Pharmacol Toxicol. 1992;71:120–26. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0773.1992.tb00530.x.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chua HC, Christensen ET, Hoestgaard-Jensen K, Hartiadi LY, Ramzan I, Jensen AA, Absalom NL, Chebib MK. the major constituent of the anxiolytic kava extract, potentiates GABAA receptors: functional characteristics and molecular mechanism. PLoS One. 2016;11:e0157700. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0157700.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berry J, Gilbert A, Grodnitzky J. Cases of kava impairment in Iowa drivers. J Forensic Sci. 2019;64:1943–49. doi:10.1111/1556-4029.14130.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geier FP, Konstantinowicz T. Kava treatment in patients with anxiety. Phytother Res. 2004;18:297–300. doi:10.1002/ptr.1422.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuchta K, de Nicola P, Schmidt M. Randomized, dose-controlled double-blind trial: efficacy of an ethanolic kava (Piper methysticum rhizome) extract for the treatment of anxiety in elderly patients. Tradit Kampo Med. 2018;5:3–10. doi:10.1002/tkm2.1079.
   Google Scholar
• Pittler MH, Ernst E. Efficacy of kava extract for treating anxiety: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2000;20:84–89. doi:10.1097/00004714-200002000-00014.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarris J, Stough C, Bousman CA, Wahid ZT, Murray G, Teschke R, Savage KM, Dowell A, Ng C, Schweitzer I. Kava in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2013;33:643–48. doi:10.1097/JCP.0b013e318291be67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Savage KM, Stough CK, Byrne GJ, Scholey A, Bousman C, Murphy J, Macdonald P, Suo C, Hughes M, Thomas S, et al. Kava for the treatment of generalised anxiety disorder (K-GAD): study protocol for a randomised controlled trial. Trials. 2015;16:493. doi:10.1186/s13063-015-0986-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ooi SL, Henderson P, Pak SC. Kava for Generalized Anxiety Disorder: a review of current evidence. J Altern Complement Med. 2018;24:770–80. doi:10.1089/acm.2018.0001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarris J, Byrne GJ, Bousman CA, Cribb L, Savage KM, Holmes O, Murphy J, Macdonald P, Short A, Nazareth S, et al. Kava for generalised anxiety disorder: a 16-week double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled study. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2020;54:288–97. doi:10.1177/0004867419891246.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh YN, Singh NN. Therapeutic potential of kava in the treatment of anxiety disorders. CNS Drugs. 2002;16:731–43. doi:10.2165/00023210-200216110-00002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pantano F, Tittarelli R, Mannocchi G, Zaami S, Ricci S, Giorgetti R, Terranova D, Busardo FP, Marinelli E. Hepatotoxicity induced by “the 3 Ks”: kava, kratom and khat. Int J Mol Sci. 2016;17:580. doi:10.3390/ijms17040580.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersen A. Kava hopes it’s set to become the next big herbal blockbuster. Wall Street J. 1998 Feb 26. Available from: www.wsj.com/articles/SB888450204130921500 [last accessed 10 May 2022].
   Google Scholar
• Goldin D, Salani D. Kalm down with kava: what clinicians need to know. J Psychosoc Nurs Ment Health Serv. 2022;1–8. doi:10.3928/02793695-20220523-02.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• [accessed 2022 Apr 7]. https://kalmwithkava.com/
   Google Scholar
• Showman AF, Baker JD, Linares C, Naeole CK, Borris R, Johnston E, Konanui J, Turner H. Contemporary Pacific and Western perspectives on `awa (Piper methysticum) toxicology. Fitoterapia. 2015;100:56–67. doi:10.1016/j.fitote.2014.11.012.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin AC, Johnston E, Xing C, Hegeman AD. Measuring the chemical and cytotoxic variability of commercially available kava (Piper methysticum G. Forster). PLoS One. 2014;9:e111572. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0111572.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• [accessed 2022 Apr 7]. https://www.samhsa.gov/data/data-we-collect/nsduh-national-survey-drug-use-and-health
   Google Scholar
• Smith KE, Rogers JM, Schriefer D, Grundmann O. Therapeutic benefit with caveats?: analyzing social media data to understand the complexities of kratom use. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2021;226:108879. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108879.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith KE, Rogers JM, Strickland JC, Epstein DH. When an obscurity becomes trend: social-media descriptions of tianeptine use and associated atypical drug use. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2021;47:455–66. doi:10.1080/00952990.2021.1904408.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• [accessed 2022 Apr 16]. https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/RedditExtractoR/RedditExtractoR.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Costantini G, Epskamp S, Borsboom D, Perugini M, Mottus R, Waldorp LJ, Cramer AOJ. State of the aRt personality research: a tutorial on network analysis of personality data in R. J Res Personal. 2015;54:13–29. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2014.07.003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McNally RJ, Robinaugh DJ, Wu GWY, Wang L, Deserno MK, Borsboom D. Mental disorders as causal systems: a network approach to posttraumatic stress disorder. Clin Psychol Sci. 2015;3:836–49. doi:10.1177/2167702614553230.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epskamp S, Cramer AOJ, Waldorp LJ, Schmittmann VD. Borsboom D. qgraph : network visualizations of relationships in psychometric data. J Stat Softw. 2012;48. doi:10.18637/jss.v048.i04.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grundmann O, Veltri CA, Morcos D, Knightes Iii D, Smith KE, Rogers JM. How essential is kratom availability and use during COVID-19? Use pattern analysis based on survey and social media data. Subst Abus. 2022;43:865–77. doi:10.1080/08897077.2021.2007517.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia-Romeu A, Cox DJ, Smith KE, Dunn KE, Griffiths RR. Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa): user demographics, use patterns, and implications for the opioid epidemic. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2020;208:107849. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.107849.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grundmann O, Veltri CA, Morcos D, Knightes ID, Smith KE, Singh D, Corazza O, Cinosi E, Martinotti G, Walsh Z, et al. Exploring the self-reported motivations of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) use: a cross-sectional investigation. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2022;48:1–12. doi:10.1080/00952990.2022.2041026.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clough AR, Jacups SP, Wang Z, Burns CB, Bailie RS, Cairney SJ, Collie A, Guyula T, McDonald SP, Currie BJ. Health effects of kava use in an eastern Arnhem Land Aboriginal community. Intern Med J. 2003;33:336–40. doi:10.1046/j.1444-0903.2003.00405.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nerurkar PV, Dragull K, Tang CS. In vitro toxicity of kava alkaloid, pipermethystine, in HepG2 cells compared to kavalactones. Toxicol Sci. 2004;79:106–11. doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfh067.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dragull K, Yoshida WY, Tang CS. Piperidine alkaloids from Piper methysticum. Phytochemistry. 2003;63:193–98. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(03)00111-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strahl S, Ehret V, Dahm HH, Maier KP. Necrotizing hepatitis after taking herbal remedies. Dtsch Med Wochenschr. 1998;123:1410–14. doi:10.1055/s-2007-1024196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clouatre DL. Kava kava: examining new reports of toxicity. Toxicol Lett. 2004;150:85–96. doi:10.1016/j.toxlet.2003.07.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Narayanapillai SC, Leitzman P, O’Sullivan MG, Xing C. Flavokawains a and B in kava, not dihydromethysticin, potentiate acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity in C57BL/6 mice. Chem Res Toxicol. 2014;27:1871–76. doi:10.1021/tx5003194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pittler MH, Ernst E. Kava extract for treating anxiety. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;:CD003383. DOI:10.1002/14651858.CD003383.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Russmann S, Barguil Y, Cabalion P, Kritsanida M, Duhet D, Lauterburg BH. Hepatic injury due to traditional aqueous extracts of kava root in New Caledonia. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2003;15:1033–36. doi:10.1097/00042737-200309000-00015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarris J, Kavanagh DJ, Byrne G, Bone KM, Adams J, Deed G. The Kava Anxiety Depression Spectrum Study (KADSS): a randomized, placebo-controlled crossover trial using an aqueous extract of Piper methysticum. Psychopharmacology. 2009;205:399–407. doi:10.1007/s00213-009-1549-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarris J, Stough C, Teschke R, Wahid ZT, Bousman CA, Murray G, Savage KM, Mouatt P, Ng C, Schweitzer I. Kava for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder RCT: analysis of adverse reactions, liver function, addiction, and sexual effects. Phytother Res. 2013;27:1723–28. doi:10.1002/ptr.4916.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sorrentino L, Capasso A, Schmidt M. Safety of ethanolic kava extract: results of a study of chronic toxicity in rats. Phytomedicine. 2006;13:542–49. doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2006.01.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Escher M, Desmeules J, Giostra E, Mentha G. Hepatitis associated with Kava, a herbal remedy for anxiety. BMJ. 2001;322:139. doi:10.1136/bmj.322.7279.139.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gow PJ, Connelly NJ, Hill RL, Crowley P, Angus PW. Fatal fulminant hepatic failure induced by a natural therapy containing kava. Med J Aust. 2003;178:442–43. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.2003.tb05286.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leith NJ, Kuczenski R. Chronic amphetamine: tolerance and reverse tolerance reflect different behavioral actions of the drug. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1981;15:399–404. doi:10.1016/0091-3057(81)90269-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karler R, Calder LD, Chaudhry IA, Turkanis SA. Blockade of “reverse tolerance” to cocaine and amphetamine by MK-801. Life Sci. 1989;45:599–606. doi:10.1016/0024-3205(89)90045-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuribara H, Tadokoro S. Reverse tolerance to ambulation-increasing effects of methamphetamine and morphine in 6 mouse strains. Jpn J Pharmacol. 1989;49:197–203. doi:10.1016/S0021-5198(19)43069-2.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lapin EP, Maker HS, Sershen H, Hurd Y, Lajtha A. Dopamine-like action of nicotine: lack of tolerance and reverse tolerance. Brain Res. 1987;407:351–63. doi:10.1016/0006-8993(87)91114-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilbey MM, Ellinwood EH Jr. Reverse tolerance to stimulant-induced abnormal behavior. Life Sci. 1977;20:1063–75. doi:10.1016/0024-3205(77)90294-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verster JC, Slot KA, Arnoldy L, van Lawick van Pabst AE, van de Loo A, Benson S, Scholey A. The association between alcohol hangover frequency and severity: evidence for reverse tolerance? J Clin Med. 2019;8:1520. doi:10.3390/jcm8101520.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aporosa SA, Atkins M, Leov JN. Decolonising quantitative methods within a Pacific research space to explore cognitive effects following kava use. Pacific Dyn. 2021;5:74–92.
   Google Scholar
• Hamilton S. In praise of kava. The Spinoff. 2017 Apr 4. Available from: https://thespinoff.co.nz/society/05-08-2017/in-praise-of-kava [last accessed 4 Apr 2022].
   Google Scholar
• [accessed 2022 Apr 7]. https://www.lovekava.com/kava/kava-reverse-tolerance-and-how-to-get-over-it/
   Google Scholar
• Israili ZH, Smissman EE. Synthesis of kavain, dihydrokavain, and analogues. J Org Chem. 1976;41:4070–74. doi:10.1021/jo00888a004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith TE, Djang M, Velander AJ, Downey CW, Carroll KA, Van Alphen S. Versatile asymmetric synthesis of the kavalactones: first synthesis of (+)-kavain. Org Lett. 2004;6:2317–20. doi:10.1021/ol0493960.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tarbah F, Mahler H, Kardel B, Weinmann W, Hafner D, Daldrup T. Kinetics of kavain and its metabolites after oral application. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci. 2003;789:115–30. doi:10.1016/S1570-0232(03)00046-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balster RL, Bigelow GE. Guidelines and methodological reviews concerning drug abuse liability assessment. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003;70:S13–40. doi:10.1016/S0376-8716(03)00097-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar