Acute Toxic Effects of Club Drugs

REFERENCES

• Baggott , M. , Jerome , L. and Stuart , R. 2001 . 3,4-methylenedioxynmethamphetamine (MDMA): A review of the English-language scientific and medical literature www.maps.org/research/mdma/protocol/litreview.html
   Google Scholar
• Baggott , M. J. , Heifets , B. , Jones , R. T. , Mendelson , J. , Sferios , E. and Zehnder , J. 2000 . Chemical analysis of ecstasy pills . Journal of the American Medical Association , 284 : 2190
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrett , R. J. and Taylor , G. T. 1993 . “Ecstasy” ingestion: A case report of severe complications . Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine , 86 ( 4 ) : 233 – 34 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baselt , R. C. 2002 . Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man. Sixth Edition. Foster City, California : Biomedical Publications. .
   Google Scholar
• Borgen , L. , Lane , E. and Lai , A. 2000 . Xyrem® (sodium oxybate): A study of dose proportionality in healthy human subjects . Journal of Clinical Pharmacology , 40 ( 4 ) : 1053
   Google Scholar
• Borron , S. W. , Monier , C , Risede , P. and Baud , F. J. 2002 . Flunitrazepam variability alters morphine, buprenorphine, and methadone lethality in the rat . Human and Experimental Toxicology , 21 ( 11 ) : 599 – 605 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brammer , G. , Bey , T. , Torres , R. and Kohler , S. 2000 . Continuous intravenous flumazenil infusion for benzodiazepine poisoning . Veterinary and Human Toxicology , 42 ( 5 ) : 280 – 81 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brenneisen , R. and Raymond , L. 2001 . “ Pharmacology of flunitrazepam and other benzodiazepines. ” . In Benzodiazepines and GHB: Detection and Pharmacology. Edited by: Salamone , S. J. Totowa, New Jersey : Humana Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) . 1999 . Adverse events associated ingestion of gamma-butyrolactone—Minnesota, New Mexico, and Texas, 1998–1999 . Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report , 48 : 137 – 40 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chin , R. L. , Sporer , K. A. , Cullison , B. , Dyer , J. E and Wu , T. D. 1998 . Clinical course of gamma-hydroxybutyrate overdose . Annals of Emergency Medicine , 31 ( 6 ) : 716 – 22 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cole , J. , Sumnall , H. and Grob , C. 2002 . Where are the casualties? . The Psychologist , 15 ( 9 ) : 474
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Couper , F. J. and Logan , B. K. 2001 . GHB and driving impairment . Journal of Forensic Toxicology , 46 ( 4 ) : 919 – 23 .
   Google Scholar
• Dalgarno , P. J. and Shewan , D. 1996 . Illicit use of ketamine in Scotland . Journal of Psychoactive Drugs , 28 ( 2 ) : 191 – 92 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis , W. M. , Bedford , J. A. , Buelke , J. L. , Guinn , M. M. , Hatoum , H. T. , Waters , I. W. , Wilson , M. C. and Braude , M. C. 1978 . Acute toxicity and gross behavioral effects of amphetamine, four methoxyamphetamines, and mescaline in rodents, dogs, and monkeys . Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology , 45 ( 1 ) : 49 – 62 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Letter , E. A. , Clauwaert , K. M. , Lambert , W. E. , Van Bocxlaer , F. J. , De Leenheer , A. P. and Piette , M. H.A. 2002 . Distribution study of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine and 3,4- methylenedioxyamphetamine in a fatal overdose . Journal of Analytical Toxicology , 26 ( 1 ) : 113 – 18 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Department of Justice . 2001 . PCP Tablets Sold as MDMA. Information Bulletin Washington, D.C. : U.S. Dept. of Justice. . Product Number 2001-LO424–003
   Google Scholar
• Derelanko , M. J. and Hollinger , M. A. 1995 . CRC Handbook of Toxicology. Boca Raton, Florida : CRC Press. .
   Google Scholar
• De Souza , I. , Kelly , J. P. , Harkin , A. J. and Leonard , B. E. 1997 . An appraisal of the pharmacological and toxicological effects of a single oral administration of 3,4-methylene-dioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in the rat . Pharmacology and Toxicology , 80 ( 5 ) : 207 – 10 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Deveaux , M. , Renet , S. , Renet , V. , Gaulier , J. M. , Kintz , P. , Verstraete , A. and Gosset , D. 2002 . Use of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) at rave parties and in date rape in France: Myth or reality? . Acta Clinica Belgica , : 37 – 40 . [original article in French], Supplement 1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dowd , S. M. , Strong , M. J. , Janicak , P. G. and Negrusz , A. 2002 . The behavioral and cognitive effects of two benzodiazepines associated with drug-facilitated sexual assault . Journal of Forensic Sciences , 47 ( 5 ) : 1101 – 07 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) . 2003 . Emergency Department Trends, Final Estimates 1995–2002. Table 2.10. Rockville, Maryland : Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA. .
   Google Scholar
• Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) . 2003 . Ecstasy and Predatory Drugs. Washington, D.C. : U.S. Department of Justice. .
   Google Scholar
• Druid , H. , Holgrem , P. and Ahlner , J. 2001 . Flunitrazepam: An evaluation of use, abuse and toxicity . Forensic Science International , 122 ( 2–3 ) : 136 – 41 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drummer , O. H. and Ranson , D. L. 1996 . Sudden death and benzodiazepines . American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology , 17 ( 4 ) : 336 – 42 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drummer , O. H. , Syrjanen , M. L. and Cordner , S. M. 1993 . Deaths involving the benzodiazepine flunitrazepam . American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology , 14 ( 3 ) : 238 – 43 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dupont , P. and Thornton , J. 2001 . Near-fatal gamma-butyrolactone intoxication—first report in the UK . Human and Experimental Toxicology , 20 ( 1 ) : 19 – 22 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dyer , J. E. and Haller , C. A. 2001 . GHB-related fatalities (Abstract of conference paper) . Journal of Toxicology—Clinical Toxicology , 39 ( 6 ) : 518
   Google Scholar
• Eaton , D. L. and Klaassen , C. D. 2001 . “ Principles of toxicology. ” . In Casarett and Doull's Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons, Sixth Edition. Edited by: Klaassen , C. D. New York : McGraw-Hill. .
   Google Scholar
• ElSohly , M. A. 2001 . Drug-facilitated sexual assault . Southern Medical Journal , 94 ( 6 ) : 655 – 56 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ElSohly , M. A. and Salamone , J. S. 1999 . Prevalence of drugs used in alleged sexual assault . Journal of Analytical Toxicology , 23 ( 3 ) : 141 – 46 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) . 2001 . Report on the Risk Assessment of PMMA in the Framework of the Joint Action on New Synthetic Drugs. Lisbon, , Portugal : EMCDDA. .
   Google Scholar
• Fantegrossi , W. E. , Ullrich , T. , Rice , K. C. , Woods , J. H. and Winger , G. 2002 . 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA “ecstasy”) and its stereoisomers as reinforcers in rhesus monkeys: Serotonergic involvement . Psychopharmacology (Berlin) , 161 ( 4 ) : 356 – 64 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischman , M. W. and Mello , M. K. 1989 . Testing for Abuse Liability of Drugs in Humans. Rockville, Maryland : National Institute on Drug Abuse. . NIDA Research Monograph #92.
   Google Scholar
• Frith , C. H. , Chang , L. W. , Lattin , D. L. , Walls , R. C. , Hamm , J. and Doblin , R. 1987 . Toxicity of methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in the dog and the rat . Fundamental and Applied Toxicology , 9 ( 1 ) : 110 – 19 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Funahashi , M. , Kohda , H. , Shikata , I. and Kimura , H. 1988 . Potentiation of lethality and increase in body temperature by combined use of d-methamphetamine and morphine in mice . Forensic Science International , 37 ( 1 ) : 19 – 26 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gable , R. S. 1993 . Toward a comparative overview of dependence potential and acute toxicity of psychoactive substances used nonmedically . American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse , 19 ( 3 ) : 263 – 81 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gad , S. C. and Chengelis , C. P. 1998 . Acute Toxicology Testing, Second Edition. San Diego, California : Academic Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Garbino , J. , Henry , J. A. , Mentha , G. and Romand , J A . 2001 . Ecstasy ingestion and fulminant hepatic failure: Liver transplantation to be considered as a last therapeutic option . Veterinary and Human Toxicology , 43 ( 2 ) : 99 – 102 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gill , J. R. and Stajic , M. 2000 . Ketamine in non-hospital and hospital deaths in New York City . Journal of Forensic Sciences , 45 ( 3 ) : 655 – 58 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goad , P. T. 1985 . Acute and Subacute Oral Toxicity of Methylenedioxymethamphetamine in Rats. Project EMD-AT-001 Report Redfield, Arkansas : Intox Laboratories. .
   Google Scholar
• Gowing , R. L. , Henry-Edwards , S. M. , Irvine , R. J. and Ali , R. L. 2002 . The health effects of ecstasy: A literature review . Drug and Alcohol Review , 21 ( 2 ) : 53 – 63 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green , S. M. , Clark , R. , Hosteller , M. A. , Cohen , M. , Carlson , D. and Rothrock , S. G. 1999 . Inadvertent ketamine overdose in children: Clinical manifestation and outcome . Annals of Emergency Medicine , 34 ( 4 ) : 492 – 97 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greer , G. R. and Tolbert , R. T. 1998 . A method of conducting therapeutic sessions with MDMA . Journal of Psychoactive Drugs , 30 ( 4 ) : 371 – 79 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansen , G. , Jensen , S. B. , Chandresh , L. and Hilden , T. 1988 . The psychotropic effect of ketamine . Journal of Psychoactive Drugs , 20 ( 4 ) : 419 – 25 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardman , H. F. , Haavik , C. O. and Seevers , M. H. 1973 . Relationship of the structure of mescaline and seven analogs to toxicity and behavior in five species of laboratory animals . Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology , 25 ( 2 ) : 299 – 309 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartung , T. K. , Schofield , E. , Short , A. J. , Parr , M. J. and Henry , J. A. 2002 . Hypoatreamic states following 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine . QJM: An International Journal of Medicine , 95 ( 7 ) : 431 – 37 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayner , G. N. 2002 . MDMA misrepresentation: An unresolved problem for Ecstasy users . Journal of Psychoactive Drugs , 34 ( 2 ) : 195 – 98 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hegadoren , K. M. , Baker , G. B. and Bourin , M. 1999 . 3,4-methylenedioxy analogues of amphetamine: Defining the risks to humans . Neuroscience and Biobehavior Review , 23 ( 4 ) : 539 – 53 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henry , J. A. , Jeffreys , K. J. and Dawling , S. 1992 . Toxicity and deaths from 3,4 methylene-dioxymethamphetamine (ecstasy) . Lancet , 340 : 384 – 87 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hernandez , M. , McDaniel , C. H. and Hernandez , O. J. 1998 . GHB-induced delirium: A case report and review of the literature on gamma hydroxybutyric acid . American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse , 24 ( 1 ) : 179 – 83 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heyndrickx , B. 1987 . Fatal intoxication due to flunitrazepam . Journal of Analytical Toxicology , 11 ( 6 ) : 278
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hindmarch , I. and Brinkmann , R. 1999 . Trends in the use of alcohol and other drugs in cases of sexual assault . Human Psychopharmacology , 14 ( 4 ) : 225 – 31 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holland , J. 2001 . Ecstasy: The Complete Guide, A Comprehensive Look at the Risks and Benefits of MDMA. Rochester, Vermont : Park Street Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Hornfeldt , C. S. , Lothridge , K. and Upshaw-Downs , J. C. 2002 . Forensic science update: Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) . Forensic Science Communications , 4 ( 1 )
   Google Scholar
• Ingels , M. , Rangan , C. , Bellezzo , J. and Clark , R. F. 2000 . Coma and respiratory depression following the ingestion of GHB and its precursors: Three cases . Journal of Emergency Medicine , 19 ( 1 ) : 47 – 50 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Interagency Coordinating Committee on the Validation of Alternative Methods (ICCVAM) . 2002 . The Revised Up-and-Down Procedure: A Test Method for Determining the Acute Oral Toxicity of Chemicals and Products Bethesda, Maryland : National Toxicology Program. . NIH Publication 02–4501.
   Google Scholar
• Irwin , R. D. 1996 . NTP Summary Report on the Metabolism, Disposition, and Toxicity of 1,4-Butanediol. Washington, DC : USDHHS. . NIH Publication 96–3932 National Toxicology Program report series #54
   Google Scholar
• Iten , P. X. , Oestreich , A. , Lips , R. and Brabetz , M. Coma after intake of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB): Two case reports . Paper presented at the 37th Triennial Conference of TIAFT (The International Association of Forensic Toxicologists) . September 5–9 , Cracow, Poland.
   Google Scholar
• Iwanami , A. 2001 . Psychotropic-induced water intoxication and its countermeasures . Journal of the Japanese Medical Association (English version) , 44 ( 9 ) : 417 – 22 .
   Google Scholar
• Jago , R. H. , Restall , J. and Thompson , M. C. 1984 . Ketamine and military anaesthesia: The effect of heavy papaveretum premedication and Althesin induction on the incidence of emergence phenomena . Anaesthesia , 39 ( 9 ) : 925 – 27 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jansen , K. L.R. 2000 . A review of the nonmedical use of ketamine: Part 1: Use, users and consequences . Journal of Psychoactive Drugs , 32 ( 4 ) : 419 – 33 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jansen , K. L.R. and Daracot-Cankovic , R. 2001 . The nonmedical use of ketamine: Part II: A review of problem use and dependence . Journal of Psychoactive Drugs , 33 ( 2 ) : 151 – 58 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jochemsen , R. , van Boxtel , C. J. , Hermans , J. and Breimer , D. D. 1983 . Kinetics of five benzodiazepine hypnotics in healthy subjects . Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics , 34 ( July ) : 42 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalant , H. 2001 . The pharmacology and toxicology of “ecstasy” (MDMA) and related drugs . Canadian Medical Association Journal , 165 ( 7 ) : 917 – 28 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalasinsky , K. S. , Dixon , M. M. , Schmunk , G. A. and Kish , S. J. 2001 . Blood, brain and hair GHB concentrations following fatal ingestion . Journal of Forensic Sciences , 46 ( 3 ) : 728 – 30 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karch , S. B. , Stephens , B. C. and Nazareno , G. V. 2001 . Club drug or confusing artifact? . American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology , 22 ( 3 ) : 266 – 69 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kish , S. J. 2002 . How strong is the evidence that brain serotonin neurons are damaged in human users of ecstasy? . Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior , 71 ( 4 ) : 845 – 51 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kissin , W. and Ball , J. 2002 . Club Drugs, 2001 Update Rockville, Maryland : Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA. . The DAWN Report
   Google Scholar
• Klaassen , C D . 2001 . Casaret and Doull's Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons. , Sixth Edition New York : McGraw-Hill. .
   Google Scholar
• Kraner , J. , Plassard , J. , McCoy , D. , Rorabeck , J. , Witeck , M. and Evans , M. 2000 . Fatal overdose from ingestion of 1,4-butanediol, a GHB precursor. (Abstract of conference paper) . Journal of Toxicology—Clinical Toxicology , 38 ( 5 ) : 534
   Google Scholar
• Laborit , H. 1964 . Sodium 4-hydroxybutyrate . International Journal of Neuropharmacology , 3 : 433 – 52 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Leadbeatter , S. 1988 . Dental anesthetic death: An unusual autoerotic episode . American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology , 9 ( 1 ) : 60 – 3 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LeBeau , M. , Andollo , W. , Hearn , W. L. , Baselt , R. , Cone , E. , Finkle , B. , Fraser , D. , Jenkins , A. , Mayer , J. , Negrusz , A. , Poklis , A. , Walls , H. , Raymon , R. , Robrson , R. and Saady , J. 1999 . Recommendations for toxicological investigations of drug-facilitated sexual assaults . Journal of Forensic Sciences , 44 ( 1 ) : 227 – 30 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li , J. , Stokes , S. A. and Woeckener , A. 1998 . A tale of novel intoxication: Seven cases of gammahydroxybuyric acid overdose . Annals of Emergency Medicine , 31 ( 6 ) : 723 – 28 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Licata , M. , Pierini , G. and Popoli , G. 1994 . A fatal ketamine poisoning . Journal of Forensic Sciences , 39 ( 5 ) : 1314 – 20 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liester , M. B. , Grob , C. S. , Bravo , G. L. and Walsh , R. N. 1992 . Phenomenology and sequelae of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine use . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 180 ( 6 ) : 345 – 52 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Long , H. , Nelson , L. S. and Hofmann , R. S. 2002 . Ketamine medication error resulting in death. (conference abstract) . Journal of Toxicology – Clinical Toxicology , 40 ( 6 ) : 614
   Google Scholar
• Louagie , H. K. , Verstraete , A. G. , DeSoete , C. J. , Baetens , D. G. and Calle , P. A. 1997 . A sudden awakening from a near coma after combined intake of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) and ethanol . Journal of Toxicology—Clinical Toxicology , 35 ( 6 ) : 591 – 94 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malberg , J. E. and Seiden , L. S. 1998 . Small changes in ambient temperature cause large changes in 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)-induced serotonin neurotoxicity and core body temperature in the rat . Journal of Neuroscience , 18 ( 13 ) : 5086 – 94 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marc , B. , Baudry , F , Vaquero , P. , Zerrouki , L. , Hassnaoui , S. and Douceron , H. 2000 . Sexual assault under benzodiazapine submission in a Paris suburb . Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics , 263 ( 4 ) : 193 – 97 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshall , B. E. and Longnecker , D. E. 1990 . “ General anesthetics. ” . In The Pharmaceutical Basis of Therapeutics. Edited by: Goodman , L. S. , Gilman , A. , Rall , T. W. , Nies , A. S. and Taylor , P. New York : Pergamon Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) . 1998 . F9261 Flunitrazepam. St. Louis, Missouri : Sigma Chemical Company. . [referencing a clinical report in Kiso to Rinsho (Tokyo) 1985, 19: 1277]
   Google Scholar
• McDaniel , C. H. and Miotto , K. A. 2001 . Gamma hydroxybutyrate (GHB) and gamma-butyrolactone (GBL) withdrawal: Five case studies . Journal of Psychoactive Drugs , 33 ( 2 ) : 143 – 49 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mechan , A. O. , Moran , P. M. , Elliott , J. M. , Young , A. M.J. , Joseph , M. H. and Green , A. R. 2002 . A study of the effect of a single neurotoxic dose of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; ecstasy) on the subsequent long-term behaviour of rats in the plus-maze and open-field . Psychopharmacology , 159 ( 2 ) : 167 – 75 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minnasch , P. , Reiter , A. , Meissner , C. and Oehmichen , M. 1999 . Accidental death caused by simultaneous mixed intoxication in three men . Archiv fuer Kriminologie , 203 ( 5–6 ) : D-23562 (article in German, from Biosis abstract)
   Google Scholar
• Mintzer , M. Z. and Griffiths , R. R. 1998 . Flunitrazepam and triazolam: A comparison of behavioral effects and abuse liability . Drug and Alcohol Dependence , 53 ( 1 ) : 49 – 66 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miotto , K. , Darakjian , J. , Basch , J. , Murray , S. , Zogg , J. and Rawson , R. 2001 . Gamma- hyrodoxybutyric acid: Patterns of use, effects and withdrawal . American Journal of Addictions , 10 ( 3 ) : 232 – 41 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miro , O. , Nogue , S. , Espinosa , G. , To-Figueras , J. and Sanchez , M. 2002 . Trends in illicit drug emergencies: The emerging role of gamma-hydroxybutyrate . Journal of Toxicology—Clinical Toxicology , 40 ( 2 ) : 129 – 35 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore , K. A. , Kilbane , E. M. , Jones , R. , Kunsman , G. W. , Levine , T. and Smith , M. 1997 . Tissue distribution of ketamine in a mixed drug fatality . Journal of Forensic Sciences , 42 ( 4 ) : 1183 – 85 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore , M. and Alltounian , H. 1978 . Journeys into the Bright World. Rockport, Maryland : ParaResearch. .
   Google Scholar
• Morland , J. 2000 . Toxicity of drug abuse – amphetamine designer drugs (ecstasy): Mental effects and consequences of a single dose . Toxicology Letters , 112 ( 3 ) : 147 – 52 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mozayani , A. , Small , P. and De Cuir , L. A fatality involving GHB . Paper presented at the conference of International Association of Forensic Toxicologists . October , Albuquerque, New Mexico.
   Google Scholar
• Mullins , M. E. 1999 . Laboratory confirmation of flunitrazepam in alleged cases of date rape . Emergency Medicine , 6 ( 9 ) : 966 – 68 .
   Google Scholar
• Munzar , P. , Yasar , S. , Redhi , G. H. , Justinova , Z. and Goldberg , S. R. 2001 . High rates of midazolam self-administration in squirrel monkeys . Behavioral Pharmacology , 12 ( 4 ) : 257 – 65 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Narvaez , R. MDMA in Combination: “Trail Mix” and Other Powdered Drug Combinations . Abstract of Paper Presented at MDMA/Ecstasy Research: Advances, Challenges, Future Directions Conference . July 19–20 . Bethesda, Maryland : NIDA. .
   Google Scholar
• National Center for Health Statistics . March 25 2004 . Total deaths for each cause by 5-year age groups, United States, 1999–2001 (GMWKI) March 25 , www.cdc.gov/nchs/datawh/statab/unpubd/mortabs/gmwki10.htm
   Google Scholar
• National Toxicology Program (NTP) . 1991 . Gamma-butyrolactone (material safety data sheet) . NTP Technical Report , 406 : 2
   Google Scholar
• Neubert , D. 1999 . “ Risk assessment and preventative hazard minimization. ” . In Toxicology. Edited by: Marquardt , H. , Schafer , S. G. , McClellan , R. and Welsch , F. San Diego, California : Academic Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Nicholson , K. L. and Balster , R. L. 2001 . GHB: A new and novel drug of abuse . Drug and Alcohol Dependence , 63 ( 1 ) : 1 – 22 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palatini , P. , Tedeschi , L. , Frison , G. , Padrini , R. , Zordan , R. , Orlando , R. , Gallimberti , L. , Gessa , G. L. and Ferrara , S. D. 1993 . Dose-dependent absorption and elimination of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid in healthy volunteers . European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology , 45 ( 4 ) : 353 – 56 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parrott , A. C. 2002 . Recreational ecstasy/MDMA: The serotonin syndrome, and serotonergic neurotoxicity . Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior , 71 ( 4 ) : 837 – 44 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parrott , A. C. 2001 . Human psychopharmacology of Ecstasy (MDMA): A review of 15 years of empirical research . Human Psychopharmacology , 16 ( 8 ) : 557 – 77 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pereira , C. A. and deNishioka , S. A. 1994 . Poisoning by the use of datura leaves in a homemade toothpaste . Clinical Toxicology , 32 ( 3 ) : 329 – 31 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peroutka , S. J. , Newman , H. and Harris , H. 1988 . Subjective effects of 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine in recreational users . Neuropsychopharmacology , 1 ( 4 ) : 273 – 77 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peyton , S. H. , Couch , A. T. and Bost , R. O. 1988 . Tissue distribution of ketamine: Two case reports . Journal of Analytical Toxicology , 12 ( 5 ) : 268 – 69 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poldrugo , F. , Barker , S. , Basa , M. , Mallardi , F. and Snead , O. C. 1985 . Ethanol potentiates the toxic effects of 1,4-butanediol . Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research , 9 ( 6 ) : 493 – 97 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pulce , C. , Mollon , P. , Pham , E. , Frantz , P. and Descotes , J. 1992 . Acute poisonings with ethyle loflazepate, flunitrazepam, prazepan, and triazolam in children . Veterinary and Human Toxicology , 34 ( 2 ) : 141 – 43 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ramcharan , S. , Meenhorst , P. L. , Otten , J. M. , Koks , C. W. , DeBoer , D. , Maes , R. A. and Beijnen , J. H. 1998 . Survival after massive Ecstasy overdose . Journal of Toxicology—Clinical Toxicology , 36 ( 7 ) : 727 – 31 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reiss , Roth A.J. Jr. and Roth , J. A. 1994 . Understanding and Preventing Violence. Volume 3: Social Influences. Washington, D.C. : National Academy Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Ricaurte , G. A. , Yuan , J. , Hatzidimitriou , G. , Cord , B. J. and McCann , U. D. 2002 . Severe dopaminergic neurotoxicity in primates after a common recreational dose regimen of MDMA (“Ecstasy”) . Science , 297 ( 5590 ) : 2260 – 63 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rickert , V. I. , Wiemann , C. M. and Berenson , A. B. 1999 . Prevalence, patterns, and correlates of voluntary flunitrazepam use . Pediatrics , 103 ( 1 ) : E61 – 3 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riggs , A. T. , Dysken , M. , Kim , S. W. and Opsahl , J. M. 1991 . A review of disorders of water homeostatis in psychiatric patients . Psychosomatics , 32 ( 2 ) : 133 – 46 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robertson , M. D. and Drummer , O. H. 1998 . Postmortem distribution and redistribution of nitrobenzodiazepines in man . Journal of Forensic Sciences , 43 ( 1 ) : 9 – 13 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roset , P. N. , Farre , M. , de la Torre , R. , Mas , M. , Menoyo , E. , Hernandez , C. and Cami , J. 2001 . Modulation of rate of onset and intensity of drug effects reduces abuse potential in healthy males . Drug and Alcohol Dependence , 64 ( 3 ) : 285 – 98 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross , T. M. 1995 . g-hydroxybutyrate overdose: Two cases illustrate the unique aspects of this dangerous drug . Journal of Emergency Nursing , 21 ( 5 ) : 374 – 76 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Roth , J. A. 1994 . Psychoactive Substances and Violence. Research in Brief Report Series. Washington, D.C. : Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice. .
   Google Scholar
• Rouse , D. A. and Fysh , R. 1992 . Body packing presenting as sudden collapse . Medicine, Science, and Law , 32 ( 3 ) : 270 – 72 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slaughter , L. 2000 . Involvement of drugs in sexual assault . Journal of Reproductive Medicine , 45 ( 5 ) : 425 – 30 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snyder , H. , Schwenzer , K. S. , Pearlman , R. , McNally , A. J. , Tsilimidos , M. and Salamone , S. J. 2001 . Serum and urine concentrations of flunitrazepam and metabolites, after a single oral dose, by immunoassay and GC-MS . Journal of Analytical Toxicology , 25 ( 8 ) : 699 – 704 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spencer , J. 1990 . Residual Effects of Abused Drugs on Behavior. Rockville, Maryland : National Institute on Drug Abuse. . NIDA Research Monograph #101
   Google Scholar
• Spilich , G. J. , June , L. and Renner , J. 1992 . Cigarette smoking and cognitive performance . British Journal of Addiction , 87 ( 9 ) : 113 – 26 .
   Google Scholar
• Stephens , B. G. , Coleman , D. E. and Baselt , R. C. 1999 . In vitro stability of endogenous gamma-hydroxybutyrate in postmortem blood . Journal of Forensic Sciences , 44 ( I ) : 231
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stillwell , M. E. 2002 . Drug-facilitated sexual assault involving gamma-hydroxybutyric acid . Journal of Forensic Sciences , 47 ( 5 ) : 1133 – 34 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanaka , E. 2002 . Toxicological interactions between alcohol and benzodiazepines . Clinical Toxicology , 40 ( 1 ) : 69 – 75 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teter , C. J. and Guthrie , S. K. 2001 . A comprehensive review of MDMA and GHB: Two common club drugs . Pharmacotherapy , 21 ( 12 ) : 1486 – 513 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsokos , M. 1999 . Colouration of the gastric mucosa following ingestion of Rohypnol I film tablets: Morphological findings following peroral intake and experimental post-mortem investigations . Rechtsmedizin , 9 ( 4 ) : 138 – 40 .
   Google Scholar
• Tunnicliff , G. 1997 . Sites of action of gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB)—A neuroactive drug with abuse potential . Clinical Toxicology , 35 ( 6 ) : 581 – 90 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner , D. M. 1994 . The Essential Psychedelic Guide. San Francisco, California : Panther Press. .
   Google Scholar
• United Nations . 1998 . Terminology and Information on Drugs. Vienna, , Austria : Office on Drugs and Crime. .
   Google Scholar
• Vaiva , G. , Boss , V. , Bailly , D. , Thomas , P. , Lestavel , P. and Goudemand , M. 2001 . An “accidental” acute psychosis with Ecstasy use . Journal of Psychoactive Drugs , 33 ( 1 ) : 95 – 97 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Kampen , J. and Katz , M. 2001 . Persistent psychosis after a single ingestion of 'ecstasy.' . Psychosomatics , 42 ( 6 ) : 525 – 27 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verwey , B. , Eling , P. , Wientjes , H. and Zitman , F. G. 2000 . Memory impairment in those who attempted suicide by benzodiazepine overdose . Journal of Clinical Psychology , 61 ( 6 ) : 456 – 59 .
   Google Scholar
• Vollenweider , F. X. , Liechti , M. E. , Gamma , A. , Greer , G. and Geyer , M. 2002 . Acute psychological and neurophysiological effects of MDMA in humans . Journal of Psychoactive Drugs , 34 ( 2 ) : 171 – 84 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson , W. A. , Litovitz , T. L. , Rodgers , G. C. , Klein-Schwartz , W. , Youniss , J. , Rose , S. R. , Borys , D. and May , M. E. 2003 . 2002 annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers toxic exposure surveillance system . American Journal of Emergency Medicine , 21 ( 5 ) : 353 – 421 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiner , A. L. , Vieira , L. , McKay , C. A. and Bayer , M. J. 2000 . Ketamine abusers presenting to the emergency department: A case series . Journal of Emergency Medicine , 18 ( 4 ) : 447 – 51 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wickstrom , W. , Amrein , R. , Haefelfinger , P. and Hartmann , D. 1980 . Pharmacokinetic and clinical observations on prolonged administration of flunitrazepam . European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology , 17 ( 3 ) : 196 – 98 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winek , C. L. , Wahba , W. W. and Rozin , L. 1999 . Heroin fatality due to penile injection . American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology , 20 ( 1 ) : 90 – 2 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woods , J. H. , Katz , J. L. and Winger , G. 2000 . “ Abuse and therapeutic use of benzodiazepines and benzodiazepine-like drugs. ” . In Psychopharmacology—The Fourth Generation of Progress. Edited by: Bloom , F. E. and Kupfer , D. J. New York : Raven Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Zickler , P. 2000 . NIDA launches initiative to combat club drugs . NIDA Notes , 14 ( 6 ) : 1
   Google Scholar
• Zvosec , D. L. , Smith , S. W. , McCutcheon , J. R. , Spillane , J. , Hall , B. J. and Peacock , E. A. 2001 . Adverse events, including death, associated with the use of 1,4-butanediol . New England Journal of Medicine , 344 ( 2 ) : 87 – 93 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar