361
Views
10
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Examination of Synthetic Cannabinoid and Cathinone Use among a Drug-Using Offender Sample, 2013–2015

, M.S.W., , M.A., , Ph.D, , M.S.W., , M.S.W., , M.P.A. & , M.S.W. show all
Pages 436-445 | Received 14 Mar 2017, Accepted 05 Jun 2017, Published online: 16 Aug 2017

References

  • AAPCC. 2016. Synthetic cathinones. Alexandria, VA: American Association of Poison Control Centers.
  • AAPCC. 2017. Synthetic cannabinoids. Alexandria, VA: American Association of Poison Control Centers.
  • Abadinsky, H. 2017. Probation and parole: Corrections in the community. New York, NY: Pearson.
  • American Psychiatric Association. 2000. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th ed. Washington, DC: Author.
  • Arntson, A., B. Ofsa, D. Lancaster, J. R. Simon, M. McMullin, and B. Logan. 2013. Validation of a novel immunoassay for the detection of synthetic cannabinoids and metabolites in urine specimens. Journal of Analytical Toxicology 37 (5):284–90. doi:10.1093/jat/bkt024.
  • Aung, M. M., G. Griffin, J. W. Huffman, M. J. Wu, C. Keel, B. Yang, … B. R. Martin. 2000. Influence of the N-1 alkyl chain length of cannabimimetic indoles upon CB 1 and CB 2 receptor binding. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 60:133–40. doi:10.1016/S0376-8716(99)00152-0.
  • Baron, M., M. Elie, and L. Elie. 2011. An analysis of legal highs—Do they contain what it says on the tin? Drug Tes ing and Analysis 3:576–81.
  • Barratt, M. J., V. Cakic, and S. Lenton. 2013. Patterns of synthetic cannabinoid use in Australia. Drug and Alcohol Review 32:141–46. doi:10.1111/dar.2013.32.issue-2.
  • Baumann, M. H. 2014. Awash in a sea of “bath salts”: Implications for biomedical research and public health. Addiction 109:1577–79. doi:10.1111/add.2014.109.issue-10.
  • Baumann, M. H., E. Solis, L. R. Watterson, J. A. Marusich, W. E. Fantegrossi, and J. L. Wiley. 2014. Baths salts, spice, and related designer drugs: The science behind the headlines. The Journal of Neuroscience 34:15150–58. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3223-14.2014.
  • Berridge, K. C., and T. E. Robinson. 2003. Parsing reward. Trends Neurosciences 26:507–13. doi:10.1016/S0166-2236(03)00233-9.
  • Blevins, C. E., K. E. Banes, R. S. Stephens, D. D. Walker, and R. A. Roffman. 2016. A preliminary evaluation of synthetic cannabinoid use among adolescent cannabis users: Characteristics and treatment outcomes. Addiction Behavioral 63:114–19. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.07.005.
  • Bonar, E. E., L. Ashrafioun, and M. A. Ilgen. 2014. Synthetic cannabinoid use among patients in residential substance use disorder treatment: Prevalence, motives, and correlates. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 143:268–71. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.07.009.
  • Brents, L. K., A. Gallus-Zawada, A. Radominska-Pandya, T. Vasiljevik, T. E. Prisinzano, W. E. Fantegrossi, … P. L. Prather. 2012. Monohydroxylated metabolites of the K2 synthetic cannabinoid JWH-073 retain intermediate to high cannabinoid 1 receptor (CB1R) affinity and exhibit neutral antagonist to partial agonist activity. Biochemical Pharmacology 83:952–61. doi:10.1016/j.bcp.2012.01.004.
  • Bruno, R., A. J. Matthews, M. Dunn, R. Alati, F. McIlwraith, S. Hickey, … N. Sindicich. 2012. Emerging psychoactive substance use among regular ecstasy users in Australia. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 124:19–25. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.11.020.
  • Bryant, W. K., D. C. Ompad, J. Ahern, Y. Wu, D. Vlahov, and S. Galea. 2006. Period and birth-cohort effects on age of first phencyclidine (PCP) use among drug users in New York City, 1960 to 2000. Annals Epidemiology 16:266–72. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2005.07.059.
  • Carhart-Harris, R. L., L. A. King, and D. J. Nutt. 2011. A web-based survey on mephedrone. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 118:19–22. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.02.011.
  • Castellanos, D., and L. M. Gralnik. 2016. Synthetic cannabinoids 2015: An update for pediatricians in clinical practice. World Journal of Clinical Pediatrics 5 (1):16. doi:10.5409/wjcp.v5.i1.16.
  • Castellanos, D., S. Singh, G. Thornton, M. Avila, and A. Moreno. 2011. Synthetic cannabinoid use: A case series of adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health 49:347–49. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.08.002.
  • Caulkins, J. P., and C. Coulson. 2011. To schedule or not to schedule: How well do we decide. Journal of Global Drug Policy and Practice 5:1–20.
  • Caviness, C. M., G. Tzilos, B. J. Anderson, and M. D. Stein. 2015. Synthetic cannabinoids: Use and predictors in a community sample of young adults. Substance Abuse 36:368–73. doi:10.1080/08897077.2014.959151.
  • CDC. 2015. Notes from the field: Increase in reported adverse health effects related to synthetic cannabinoid use—United States, January—May 2015. MMWR 64:618–19.
  • Darke, S. 1998. Self-report among injecting drug users: A review. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 3:253–63. doi:10.1016/S0376-8716(98)00028-3.
  • Denis, C., M. Fatséas, V. Beltran, C. Bonnet, S. Picard, I. Combourieu, J. Daulouède, and M. Auriacombe. 2012. Validity of the self-reported drug use section of the addiction severity index and associated factors used under naturalistic conditions. Substances Use Misuse 47:356–63. doi:10.3109/10826084.2011.640732.
  • Dresen, S., N. Ferreirós, M. Pütz, F. Westphal, R. Zimmermann, and V. Auwärter. 2010. Monitoring of herbal mixtures potentially containing synthetic cannabinoids as psychoactive compounds. Journal Massachusetts Spectrometry 45:1186–94. doi:10.1002/jms.v45:10.
  • European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). 2016. EU drug markets report: An in-depth analysis. Lisbon, Portugal: EMCDDA, Europol.
  • Every-Palmer, S. 2011. Synthetic cannabinoid JWH-018 and psychosis: An explorative study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 117:152–57. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.01.012.
  • Every-Palmer, S. 2010. Warning: Legal synthetic cannabinoid-receptor agonists such as JWH-018 may precipitate psychosis in vulnerable individuals. Addiction 105:1859–60. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03119.x.
  • Fattore, L., and W. Fratta. 2011. Beyond THC: The new generation of cannabinoid designer drugs. Frontiers Behavioral Neuroscience 5:1–12. doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2011.00060.
  • Fazel, S., and K. Seewald. 2012. Severe mental illness in 33,588 prisoners worldwide: Systematic review and meta-regression analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry 200:364–73. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.111.096370.
  • Greenberg, G. A., and R. A. Rosenheck. 2008. Jail incarceration, homelessness, and mental health: A national study. Psychiatric Services 59:170–77. doi:10.1176/ps.2008.59.2.170.
  • Griffiths, P., R. Sedefov, A. N. A. Gallegos, and D. Lopez. 2010. How globalization and market innovation challenge how we think about and respond to drug use: “Spice”: A case study. Addiction 105:951–53. doi:10.1111/add.2010.105.issue-6.
  • Gunderson, E. W., H. M. Haughey, N. Ait-Daoud, A. S. Joshi, and C. L. Hart. 2014. A survey of synthetic cannabinoid consumption by current cannabis users. Substance Abuse 2:184–89. doi:10.1080/08897077.2013.846288.
  • Gunderson, E. W., H. M. Haughey, N. Ait-Daoud, A. S. Joshi, and C. L. Hart. 2012. “Spice” and “K2” herbal highs: A case series and systematic review of the clinical effects and biopsychosocial implications of synthetic cannabinoid use in humans. American Journal on Addictions 4:320–26. doi:10.1111/j.1521-0391.2012.00240.x.
  • Hermanns-Clausen, M., S. Kneisel, B. Szabo, and V. Auwärter. 2013. Acute toxicity due to the confirmed consumption of synthetic cannabinoids: Clinical and laboratory findings. Addiction 108:534–44. doi:10.1111/add.2013.108.issue-3.
  • Hillebrand, J., D. Olszewski, and R. Sedefov. 2010. Legal highs on the Internet. Substances Use Misuse 45:330–40. doi:10.3109/10826080903443628.
  • Hu, X., B. A. Primack, T. E. Barnett, and R. L. Cook. 2011. College students and use of K2: An emerging drug of abuse in young persons. Substances Abuse Treatment Prevention Policy 6:16. doi:10.1186/1747-597X-6-16.
  • Huang, P. K., S. M. Aarde, D. Angrish, K. L. Houseknecht, T. J. Dickerson, and M. A. Taffe. 2012. Contrasting effects of d-methamphetamine, 3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, 3, 4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone, and 4-methylmethcathinone on wheel activity in rats. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 126:168–75. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.05.011.
  • Hudson, S., and J. Ramsey. 2011. The emergence and analysis of synthetic cannabinoids. Drug Testing Analysis 3:466–78. doi:10.1002/dta.268.
  • Ingram, D. D. and S. J. Franco. 2014. 2013 NCHS urban–rural classification scheme for counties. Vital and Health Statistics 2(166):1–81. National Center for Health Statistics..
  • Kelly, B. C., B. E. Wells, M. Pawson, A. Leclair, J. T. Parsons, and S. A. Golub. 2013. Novel psychoactive drug use among younger adults involved in US nightlife scenes. Drug and Alcohol Review 32:588–93. doi:10.1111/dar.2013.32.issue-6.
  • Kentucky Department of Corrections (KY DOC). 2015. Kentucky Department of Corrections annual report. http://corrections.ky.gov/about/Documents/Research%20and%20Statistics/Annual%20Reports/2015%20Annual%20Report.pdf.
  • Khantzian, E. J. 1997. The self-medication hypothesis of substance use disorders: A reconsideration and recent applications. Harvard Review of Psychiatry 4:231–44. doi:10.3109/10673229709030550.
  • King, L. A., and D. J. Nutt. 2014. Deaths from “legal highs”: A problem of definitions. The Lancet 383:952. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60479-7.
  • Lawn, W., M. Barratt, M. Williams, A. Horne, and A. Winstock. 2014. The NBOMe hallucinogenic drug series: Patterns of use, characteristics of users and self-reported effects in a large international sample. Journal Psychopharmacology 28:780–88. doi:10.1177/0269881114523866.
  • Lenhart, A., K. Purcell, A. Smith, and K. Zickuhr. 2010. Social media & mobile Internet use among teens and young adults: Millennials. Pew Internet & American Life Project: 1–51.
  • Loi, B., J. M. Corkery, H. Claridge, C. Goodair, S. Chiappini, C. Gimeno Clemente, and F. Schifano. 2015. Deaths of individuals aged 16–24 years in the UK after using mephedrone. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental 30:225–32. doi:10.1002/hup.2423.
  • López-Arnau, R., J. Martínez-Clemente, T. Rodrigo, D. Pubill, J. Camarasa, and E. Escubedo. 2015. Neuronal changes and oxidative stress in adolescent rats after repeated exposure to mephedrone. Toxicogical Applications Pharmaceutical 286:27–35. doi:10.1016/j.taap.2015.03.015.
  • Markman, J. A., M. R. Durose, R. R. Rantala, and A. D. Tiedt. 2016. Recidivism of offenders placed on federal community supervision in 2005: Patterns from 2005 to 2010. Bureau of Justice Statistics (NCJ 249743): 1–16.
  • Marquis, K. H. 1981. Quality of prisoner self-reports: Arrest and conviction response errors. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation.
  • Matthews, A., R. Sutherland, A. Peacock, J. Van Buskirk, E. Whittaker, L. Burns, and R. Bruno. 2016. I I like the old stuff better than the new stuff? Subjective experiences of new psychoactive substances. International Journal of Drug Policy. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.11.004
  • Maxwell, J. C. 2014. Psychoactive substances—Some new, some old: A scan of the situation in the US. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 134:71–77. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.09.011.
  • McLellan, A. T., H. Kushner, D. Metzger, R. Peters, I. Smith, G. Grissom, … M. Argeriou. 1992. The fifth edition of the addiction severity index. Journal Substances Abuse Treatment 9:199–213. doi:10.1016/0740-5472(92)90062-S.
  • Measham, F., D. M. Wood, P. I. Dargan, and K. Moore. 2011. The rise in legal highs: Prevalence and patterns in the use of illegal drugs and first-and second-generation “legal highs” in South London gay dance clubs. Journal Substances Abuse 16:263–72.
  • Meyer, M. R., M. P. Bergstrand, A. Helander, and O. Beck. 2016. Identification of main human urinary metabolites of the designer nitrobenzodiazepines clonazolam, meclonazepam, and nifoxipam by nano-liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry for drug testing purposes. Analysis Bioanalytical Chemical 408:3571–91. doi:10.1007/s00216-016-9439-6.
  • Miller, B. L., and J. M. Stogner. 2014. Not-so-clean fun: A profile of bath salt users among a college sample in the United States. Journal Psychoactive Drugs 46:147–53. doi:10.1080/02791072.2013.876520.
  • Miller, B. L., J. M. Stogner, J. M. Miller, and M. I. Fernandez. 2017. The arrest and synthetic novel psychoactive drug relationship: Observations from a young adult population. Journal of Drug Issues 47 (1):91–103. doi:10.1177/0022042616678611.
  • Miotto, K., J. Striebel, A. K. Cho, and C. Wang. 2013. Clinical and pharmacological aspects of bath salt use: A review of the literature and case reports. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 132:1–12. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.06.016.
  • Monte, A. A., A. C. Bronstein, D. J. Cao, K. J. Heard, J. A. Hoppe, C. O. Hoyte, … E. J. Lavonas. 2014. An outbreak of exposure to a novel synthetic cannabinoid. New England Journal of Medicine 370:389–90. doi:10.1056/NEJMc1313655.
  • Mumola, C. J., and J. C. Karberg. 2006. Drug use and dependence, state and federal prisoners, 2004. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
  • National Conference of State Legislatures. 2015. Synthetic drug threats. http://www.ncsl.org/research/civil-and-criminal-justice/synthetic-drug-threats.aspx.
  • National Institute on Drug Abuse [NIDA]. 2016. Emerging trends and alerts. https://www.drugabuse.gov/drugs-abuse/emerging-trends-alerts.
  • Nia, A. B., B. Medrano, C. Perkel, I. Galynker, and Y. L. Hurd. 2016. Psychiatric comorbidity associated with synthetic cannabinoid use compared to cannabis. Journal Psychopharmacology 30: 0269881116658990.
  • Ninnemann, A. L., and L. MacPherson. 2015. Query and test for synthetic cannabinoids in drug treatment and research. The International Journal on Drug Policy 26:531–32. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2014.11.013.
  • Novellas, J., R. López-Arnau, D. Pubill, J. Camarasa, and E. Escubedo. 2015. Concentrations of MDPV in rat striatum correlate with the psychostimulant effect. Journal Psychopharmacology 29:1209–18. doi:10.1177/0269881115598415.
  • Office of National Drug Control Policy [ONDCP]. 2013. Community drug early warning system: The CDEWS pilot project. Washington, DC: Author.
  • Office of National Drug Control Policy [ONDCP]. 2015. Community drug early warning system: The CDEWS-2 replication study. Washington, DC: Author.
  • Office of National Drug Control Policy [ONDCP]. 2016. National drug control strategy. Washington, DC: Author.
  • Palamar, J. J. 2015. “Bath salt” use among a nationally representative sample of high school seniors in the United States. American Journal on Addictions 24:488–91. doi:10.1111/ajad.12254.
  • Palamar, J. J., and P. Acosta. 2015. Synthetic cannabinoid use in a nationally representative sample of US high school seniors. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 149:194–202. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.01.044.
  • Palamar, J. J., S. S. Martins, M. K. Su, and D. C. Ompad. 2015. Self-reported use of novel psychoactive substances in a US nationally representative survey: Prevalence, correlates, and a call for new survey methods to prevent underreporting. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 156:112–19. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.08.028.
  • Papanti, D., F. Schifano, G. Botteon, F. Bertossi, J. Mannix, D. Vidoni, … T. Bonavigo. 2013. “Spiceophrenia”: A systematic overview of “Spice”-related psychopathological issues and a case report. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental 28(4):379–89. doi:10.1002/hup.2312.
  • Perrone, D., R. D. Helgesen, and R. G. Fischer. 2013. United States drug prohibition and legal highs: How drug testing may lead cannabis users to Spice. Drug Education Prevention Policy 20:216–24. doi:10.3109/09687637.2012.749392.
  • Prins, S. J. 2014. Prevalence of mental illnesses in US state prisons: A systematic review. Psychiatric Services 65:862–72. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201300166.
  • Qian, Z., W. Jia, T. Li, C. Liu, and Z. Hua. 2017. Identification and analytical characterization of four synthetic cathinone derivatives iso-4-BMC, β-TH-naphyrone, mexedrone, and 4-MDMC. Drug Testing and Analysis 9 (2):274–81. doi:10.1002/dta.v9.2.
  • Richardson, J. B., C. S. Vil, E. Wish, and C. Cooper. 2016. “On papers”: Perceptions of synthetic cannabinoid use among Black males under criminal justice supervision. Health & Justice 4 (1):1. doi:10.1186/s40352-016-0032-z.
  • Rosenbaum, C. D., S. P. Carreiro, and K. M. Babu. 2012. Here today, gone tomorrow… and back again? A review of herbal marijuana alternatives (K2, Spice), synthetic cathinones (bath salts), kratom, salviadivinorum, methoxetamine, and piperazines. Journal of Medical Toxicology 8:15–32. doi:10.1007/s13181-011-0202-2.
  • Sacco, L. N., and K. Finklea. 2016. Synthetic drugs: Overview and issues for Congress. https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R42066.pdf.
  • Seely, K. A., J. Lapoint, J. H. Moran, and L. Fattore. 2012. Spice drugs are more than harmless herbal blends: A review of the pharmacology and toxicology of synthetic cannabinoids. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 39:234–43. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2012.04.017.
  • Sheehan, D. V., Y. Lecrubier, K. H. Sheehan, P. Amorim, J. Janavs, E. Weiller, … G. C. Dunbar. 1998. The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI): The development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD-10. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 20:22–33.
  • Spear, L. P. 2000. The adolescent brain and age-related behavioral manifestations. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews R 24:417–63. doi:10.1016/S0149-7634(00)00014-2.
  • Staton Tindall, M., and E. Winston. 2016. Criminal justice Kentucky treatment outcome study FY2016. http://cdar.uky.edu/cjktos/Downloads/CJKTOS_FY2016_Final%20Report.pdf.
  • Steinberg, L., D. Albert, E. Cauffman, M. Banich, S. Graham, and J. Woolard. 2008. Age differences in sensation seeking and impulsivity as indexed by behavior and self-report: Evidence for a dual systems model. Developmental Psychology 44:1764. doi:10.1037/a0012955.
  • Sutherland, R., A. Peacock, E. Whittaker, A. Roxburgh, S. Lenton, A. Matthews, … R. Bruno. 2016. New psychoactive substance use among regular psychostimulant users in Australia, 2010–2015. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 161:110–18. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.01.024.
  • Tynon, M., J. Homan, S. Kacinko, A. Ervin, M. McMullin, and B. K. Logan. 2016. Rapid and sensitive screening and confirmation of thirty-four aminocarbonyl/carboxamide (NACA) and arylindole synthetic cannabinoid drugs in human whole blood. Drug Testing and Analysis 9:924–34.
  • Tzilos, G. K., M. K. Reddy, C. M. Caviness, B. J. Anderson, and M. D. Stein. 2014. Getting higher: Co-occurring drug use among marijuana-using emerging adults. Journal Addiction Diseases 33:202–09. doi:10.1080/10550887.2014.950024.
  • Van Hout, M. C., and T. Bingham. 2012. “A costly turn on”: Patterns of use and perceived consequences of mephedrone based head shop products amongst Irish injectors. The International Journal on Drug Policy 23:188–97. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2012.01.008.
  • Vandrey, R., K. E. Dunn, J. A. Fry, and E. R. Girling. 2012. A survey study to characterize use of Spice products (synthetic cannabinoids). Drug and Alcohol Dependence 120:238–41. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.07.011.
  • Vardakou, I., C. Pistos, and C. Spiliopoulou. 2010. Spice drugs as a new trend: Mode of action, identification and legislation. Toxicology Letters 197:157–62. doi:10.1016/j.toxlet.2010.06.002.
  • Vazirian, M., J. M. Jerry, J. James, and R. M. Dale. 2015. Bath salts in the emergency department: A survey of emergency clinicians’ experience with bath salts-intoxicated patients. Journal Addiction Medica 9:94–98. doi:10.1097/ADM.0000000000000094.
  • Wagner, K. D., R. F. Armenta, A. M. Roth, J. C. Maxwell, J. Cuevas-Mota, and R. S. Garfein. 2014. Use of synthetic cathinones and cannabimimetics among injection drug users in San Diego, California. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 141:99–106. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.05.007.
  • Watterson, L. R., P. R. Kufahl, N. E. Nemirovsky, K. Sewalia, M. Grabenauer, B. F. Thomas, … M. F. Olive. 2014. Potent rewarding and reinforcing effects of the synthetic cathinone 3, 4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV). Addiction Biology 19:165–74. doi:10.1111/j.1369-1600.2012.00474.x.
  • Winstock, A., M. Lynskey, R. Borschmann, and J. Waldron. 2015. Risk of emergency medical treatment following consumption of cannabis or synthetic cannabinoids in a large global sample. Journal of Psychopharmacology 29:698–703. doi:10.1177/0269881115574493.
  • Winstock, A. R., and M. J. Barratt. 2013a. Synthetic cannabis: A comparison of patterns of use and effect profile with natural cannabis in a large global sample. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 131:106–11. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.12.011.
  • Winstock, A. R., and M. J. Barratt. 2013b. The 12-month prevalence and nature of adverse experiences resulting in emergency medical presentations associated with the use of synthetic cannabinoid products. Human Psychopharmmacology Clinical and Experimental 28:390–93. doi:10.1002/hup.2292.
  • Wood, D. M., F. Measham, and P. I. Dargan. 2012. “Our favourite drug”: Prevalence of use and preference for mephedrone in the London night-time economy 1 year after control. Journal of Substances Use 17:91–97. doi:10.3109/14659891.2012.661025.
  • Zanis, D. A., A. T. McLellan, and M. Randall. 1994. Can you trust patient self-reports of drug use during treatment? Drug and Alcohol Dependence 35:127–32. doi:10.1016/0376-8716(94)90119-8.
  • Zimmermann, U. S., P. R. Winkelmann, M. Pilhatsch, J. A. Nees, R. Spanagel, and K. Schulz. 2009. Withdrawal phenomena and dependence syndrome after the consumption of “spice gold.” Deutsches Ärzteblatt International 106:464–67.
  • Zuba, D., B. Byrska, and M. Maciow. 2011. Comparison of “herbal highs” composition. Analysis Bioanalytical Chemical 400:119–26. doi:10.1007/s00216-011-4743-7.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.