EPA but Not DHA Appears To Be Responsible for the Efficacy of Omega-3 Long Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Supplementation in Depression: Evidence from a Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

REFERENCES

• AndradeLCaraveo-AnduagaJJBerglundPBijlRVDe GraafRVolleberghWDragomireckaEKohnRKellerMKesslerRCKawakamiNKilicCOffordDUstunTBWittchenHU: The epidemiology of major depressive episodes: results from the International Consortium of Psychiatric Epidemiology (ICPE) Surveys. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res 12: 3– 21, 2003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PenninxBWBeekmanATHonigADeegDJSchoeversRAvan EijkJTvan TilburgW: Depression and cardiac mortality: results from a community-based longitudinal study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 58: 221– 227, 2001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SobockiPJönssonBAngstJRehnbergC: Cost of depression in Europe. J Ment Health Policy Econ 9: 87– 98, 2006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MathersCDLoncarD: Projections of global mortality and burden of disease from 2002 to 2030. PLoS Med 3: E442, 2006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KlermanGLWeissmanMM: Increasing rates of depression. JAMA 261: 2229– 2235, 1989.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JemalAWardEAndersonRNMurrayTThunMJ: Widening of socioeconomic inequalities in U.S. death rates, 1993–2001. PLoS One 3: E2181, 2008.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• O'FlahertyMFordEAllenderSScarboroughPCapewellS: Coronary heart disease trends in England and Wales from 1984 to 2004: concealed levelling of mortality rates among young adults. Heart 94: 178– 181, 2008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PuriBK: Cardiovascular disease and depression: the PUFA connection. Int J Clin Pract 62: 355– 357, 2008.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• RaisonCLCapuronLMillerAH: Cytokines sing the blues: inflammation and the pathogenesis of depression. Trends Immunol 27: 24– 31, 2006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PaceTWHuFMillerAH: Cytokine-effects on glucocorticoid receptor function: relevance to glucocorticoid resistance and the pathophysiology and treatment of major depression. Brain Behav Immun 21: 9– 19, 2007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CalderPC: n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation, and inflammatory diseases. Am J Clin Nutr 83: 1505S– 1519S, 2006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kiecolt-GlaserJKBeluryMAPorterKBeversdorfDQLemeshowSGlaserR: Depressive symptoms, omega-6:omega-3 fatty acids, and inflammation in older adults. Psychosom Med 69: 217– 224, 2007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AppletonKMPetersTJHaywardRCHeatherleySVMcNaughtonSARogersPJGunnellDNessARKesslerD: Depressed mood and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake from fish: non-linear or confounded association? Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 42: 100– 104, 2007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AppletonKMWoodsideJVYarnellJWArveilerDHaasBAmouyelPMontayeMFerrieresJRuidavetsJBDucimetierePBinghamAEvansA: Depressed mood and dietary fish intake: direct relationship or indirect relationship as a result of diet and lifestyle? J Affect Disord 104: 217– 223, 2007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HibbelnJR: Fish consumption and major depression. Lancet 351: 1213, 1998.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HibbelnJR: Seafood consumption, the DHA content of mothers' milk and prevalence rates of postpartum depression: a cross-national, ecological analysis. J Affect Disord 69: 15– 29, 2002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NoaghiulSHibbelnJR: Cross-national comparisons of seafood consumption and rates of bipolar disorders. Am J Psychiatry 160: 2222– 2227, 2003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SilversKMScottKM: Fish consumption and self-reported physical and mental health status. Public Health Nutr 5: 427– 431, 2002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TanskanenAHibbelnJRTuomilehtoJUutelaAHaukkalaAViinamakiHLehtonenJVartiainenE: Fish consumption and depressive symptoms in the general population in Finland. Psychiatr Serv 52: 529– 531, 2001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TimonenMHorrobinDJokelainenJLaitinenJHervaARäsänenP: Fish consumption and depression: the Northern Finland 1966 birth cohort study. J Affect Disord 82: 447– 452, 2004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AdamsPBLawsonSSanigorskiASinclairAJ: Arachidonic acid to eicosapentaenoic acid ratio in blood correlates positively with clinical symptoms of depression. Lipids 31 Suppl: S157– S161, 1996.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ConklinSMHarrisJIManuckSBYaoJKHibbelnJRMuldoonMF: Serum omega-3 fatty acids are associated with variation in mood, personality and behavior in hypercholesterolemic community volunteers. Psychiatry Res 152: 1– 10, 2007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EdwardsRPeetMShayJHorrobinD: Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid levels in the diet and in red blood cell membranes of depressed patients. J Affect Disord 48: 149– 155, 1998.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FéartCPeuchantELetenneurLSamieriCMontagnierDFourrier-ReglatABarberger-GateauP: Plasma eicosapentaenoic acid is inversely associated with severity of depressive symptomatology in the elderly: data from the Bordeaux sample of the Three-City Study. Am J Clin Nutr 87: 1156– 1162, 2008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MaesMChristopheADelangheJAltamuraCNeelsHMeltzerHY: Lowered omega3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in serum phospholipids and cholesteryl esters of depressed patients. Psychiatry Res 85: 275– 291, 1999.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MaesMSmithRChristopheACosynsPDesnyderRMeltzerH: Fatty acid composition in major depression: decreased omega 3 fractions in cholesteryl esters and increased C20: 4 omega 6/C20:5 omega 3 ratio in cholesteryl esters and phospholipids. J Affect Disord 38: 35– 46, 1996.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PeetMMurphyBShayJHorrobinD: Depletion of omega-3 fatty acid levels in red blood cell membranes of depressive patients. Biol Psychiatry 43: 315– 319, 1998.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De VrieseSRChristopheABMaesM: In humans, the seasonal variation in poly-unsaturated fatty acids is related to the seasonal variation in violent suicide and serotonergic markers of violent suicide. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 71: 13– 18, 2004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HuanMHamazakiKSunYItomuraMLiuHKangWWatanabeSTerasawaKHamazakiT: Suicide attempt and n-3 fatty acid levels in red blood cells: a case control study in China. Biol Psychiatry 56: 490– 496, 2004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SubletteMEHibbelnJRGalfalvyHOquendoMAMannJJ: Omega-3 polyunsaturated essential fatty acid status as a predictor of future suicide risk. Am J Psychiatry 163: 1100– 1102, 2006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RoseG: Sick individuals and sick populations. Int J Epidemiol 14: 32– 38, 1985.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BertonONestlerEJ: New approaches to antidepressant drug discovery: beyond monoamines. Nat Rev Neurosci 7: 137– 151, 2006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PuriBKCounsellSJHamiltonGRichardsonAJHorrobinDF: Eicosapentaenoic acid in treatment-resistant depression associated with symptom remission, structural brain changes and reduced neuronal phospholipid turnover. Int J Clin Pract 55: 560– 563, 2001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FrangouSLewisMMcCroneP: Efficacy of ethyl-eicosapentaenoic acid in bipolar depression: randomised double-blind placebo-controlled study. Br J Psychiatry 188: 46– 50, 2006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JazayeriSTehrani-DoostMKeshavarzSAHosseiniMDjazayeryAAminiHJalaliMPeetM: Comparison of therapeutic effects of omega-3 fatty acid eicosapentaenoic acid and fluoxetine, separately and in combination, in major depressive disorder. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 42: 192– 198, 2008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NemetsBStahlZBelmakerRH: Addition of omega-3 fatty acid to maintenance medication treatment for recurrent unipolar depressive disorder. Am J Psychiatry 159: 477– 479, 2002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PeetMHorrobinDF: A dose-ranging study of the effects of ethyl-eicosapentaenoate in patients with ongoing depression despite apparently adequate treatment with standard drugs. Arch Gen Psychiatry 59: 913– 919, 2002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• StollALSeverusWEFreemanMPRueterSZboyanHADiamondECressKKMarangellLB: Omega 3 fatty acids in bipolar disorder: a preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry 56: 407– 412, 1999.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SuKPHuangSYChiuCCShenWW: Omega-3 fatty acids in major depressive disorder. A preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 13: 267– 271, 2003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SuKPHuangSYChiuTHHuangKCHuangCLChangHCParianteCM: Omega-3 fatty acids for major depressive disorder during pregnancy: results from a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry 69: 644– 651, 2008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HallahanBHibbelnJRDavisJMGarlandMR: Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in patients with recurrent self-harm. Single-centre double-blind randomised controlled trial. Br J Psychiatry 190: 118– 122, 2007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• da SilvaTMMunhozRPAlvarezCNaliwaikoKKissAAndreatiniRFerrazAC: Depression in Parkinson's disease: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled pilot study of omega-3 fatty-acid supplementation. J Affect Disord 111: 351– 359, 2008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NemetsHNemetsBApterABrachaZBelmakerRH: Omega-3 treatment of childhood depression: a controlled, double-blind pilot study. Am J Psychiatry 163: 1098– 1100, 2006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BehanPOBehanWMHorrobinD: Effect of high doses of essential fatty acids on the postviral fatigue syndrome. Acta Neurol Scand 82: 209– 216, 1990.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FentonWSDickersonFBoronowJHibbelnJRKnableM: A placebo-controlled trial of omega-3 fatty acid (ethyl eicosapentaenoic acid) supplementation for residual symptoms and cognitive impairment in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 158: 2071– 2074, 2001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FrangouSLewisMWollardJSimmonsA: Preliminary in vivo evidence of increased N-acetyl-aspartate following eicosapentanoic acid treatment in patients with bipolar disorder. J Psychopharmacol 21: 435– 439, 2007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GrenyerBFCroweTMeyerBOwenAJGrigonis-DeaneEMCaputiPHowePR: Fish oil supplementation in the treatment of major depression: a randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 31: 1393– 1396, 2007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KeckPEJrMintzJMcElroySLFreemanMPSuppesTFryeMAAltshulerLLKupkaRNolenWALeverichGSDenicoffKDGrunzeHDuanNPostRM: Double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trials of ethyl-eicosapentanoate in the treatment of bipolar depression and rapid cycling bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry 60: 1020– 1022, 2006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LlorenteAMJensenCLVoigtRGFraleyJKBerrettaMCHeirdWC: Effect of maternal docosahexaenoic acid supplementation on postpartum depression and information processing. Am J Obstet Gynecol 188: 1348– 1353, 2003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MarangellLBMartinezJMZboyanHAKertzBKimHFPuryearLJ: A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid in the treatment of major depression. Am J Psychiatry 160: 996– 998, 2003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ReesAMAustinMPParkerGB: Omega-3 fatty acids as a treatment for perinatal depression: randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 42: 199– 205, 2008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RogersPJAppletonKMKesslerDPetersTJGunnellDHaywardRCHeatherleySVChristianLMMcNaughtonSANessAR: No effect of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (EPA and DHA) supplementation on depressed mood and cognitive function: a randomised controlled trial. Br J Nutr 99: 421– 431, 2008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SilversKMWoolleyCCHamiltonFCWattsPMWatsonRA: Randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial of fish oil in the treatment of depression. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 72: 211– 218, 2005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ZanariniMCFrankenburgFR: omega-3 Fatty acid treatment of women with borderline personality disorder: a double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study. Am J Psychiatry 160: 167– 169, 2003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WarrenGMcKendrickMPeetM: The role of essential fatty acids in chronic fatigue syndrome. A case-controlled study of red-cell membrane essential fatty acids (EFA) and a placebo-controlled treatment study with high dose of EFA. Acta Neurol Scand 99: 112– 116, 1999.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DoornbosBvan GoorSADijck-BrouwerDASchaafsmaAKorfJMuskietFA: Supplementation of a low dose of DHA or DHA+AA does not prevent peripartum depressive symptoms in a small population based sample. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 33: 49– 52, 2009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FreemanMPDavisMSinhaPWisnerKLHibbelnJRGelenbergAJ: Omega-3 fatty acids and supportive psychotherapy for perinatal depression: a randomized placebo-controlled study. J Affect Disord 110: 142– 148, 2008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LucasMAsselinGMeretteCPoulinMJDodinS: Ethyl-eicosapentaenoic acid for the treatment of psychological distress and depressive symptoms in middle-aged women: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. Am J Clin Nutr 89: 641– 651, 2009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van de RestOGeleijnseJMKokFJvan StaverenWAHoefnagelsWHBeekmanATde GrootLC: Effect of fish-oil supplementation on mental well-being in older subjects: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 88: 706– 713, 2008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FreemanMPHibbelnJRWisnerKLDavisJMMischoulonDPeetMKeckPEJrMarangellLBRichardsonAJLakeJStollAL: Omega-3 fatty acids: evidence basis for treatment and future research in psychiatry. J Clin Psychiatry 67: 1954– 1967, 2006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LinPYSuKP: A meta-analytic review of double-blind, placebo-controlled trials of antidepressant efficacy of omega-3 fatty acids. J Clin Psychiatry 68: 1056– 1061, 2007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AppletonKMHaywardRCGunnellDPetersTJRogersPJKesslerDNessAR: Effects of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on depressed mood: systematic review of published trials. Am J Clin Nutr 84: 1308– 1316, 2006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RossBMSeguinJSieswerdaLE: Omega-3 fatty acids as treatments for mental illness: which disorder and which fatty acid? Lipids Health Dis 6: 21, 2007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FuxMBenjaminJNemetsB: A placebo-controlled cross-over trial of adjunctive EPA in OCD. J Psychiatr Res 38: 323– 325, 2004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NessARGallacherJEBennettPDGunnellDJRogersPJKesslerDBurrML: Advice to eat fish and mood: a randomised controlled trial in men with angina. Nutr Neurosci 6: 63– 65, 2003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JadadARMooreRACarrollDJenkinsonCReynoldsDJGavaghanDJMcQuayHJ: Assessing the quality of reports of randomized clinical trials: is blinding necessary? Control Clin Trials 17: 1– 12, 1996.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• BaxLYuLMIkedaNMoonsKG: A systematic comparison of software dedicated to meta-analysis of causal studies. BMC Med Res Methodol 7: 40, 2007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FontaniGCorradeschiFFeliciAAlfattiFBugariniRFiaschiAICerretaniDMontorfanoGRizzoAMBerraB: Blood profiles, body fat and mood state in healthy subjects on different diets supplemented with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Eur J Clin Invest 35: 499– 507, 2005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HirashimaFParowAMStollALDemopulosCMDamicoKERohanMLEskesenJGZuoCSCohenBMRenshawPF: Omega-3 fatty acid treatment and T(2) whole brain relaxation times in bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry 161: 1922– 1924, 2004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RushJAFirstMBBlackerD: “Handbook of Psychiatric Measures.” 2nd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc., 2008.
   Google Scholar
• SingletonNBumpsteadRO'BrienMLeeAMeltzerH. Psychiatric Morbidity Among Adults Living in Private Households. London: The Stationery Office; 2001. Accessed at: http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_health/psychmorb.pdf
   Google Scholar
• GiltayEJGoorenLJTooriansAWKatanMBZockPL: Docosahexaenoic acid concentrations are higher in women than in men because of estrogenic effects. Am J Clin Nutr 80: 1167– 1174, 2004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BurdgeGCWoottonSA: Conversion of alpha-linolenic acid to eicosapentaenoic, docosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in young women. Br J Nutr 88: 411– 420, 2002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BlazerDGKesslerRCMcGonagleKASwartzMS: The prevalence and distribution of major depression in a national community sample: the National Comorbidity Survey. Am J Psychiatry 151: 979– 986, 1994.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ClaytonEHHanstockTLHirnethSJKableCJGargMLHazellPL: Reduced mania and depression in juvenile bipolar disorder associated with long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation. Eur J Clin Nutr 63: 1037– 1040, 2009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FujiokaSHamazakiKItomuraMHuanMNishizawaHSawazakiSKitajimaIHamazakiT: The effects of eicosapentaenoic acid–fortified food on inflammatory markers in healthy subjects—a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo) 52: 261– 265, 2006.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• ItomuraMHamazakiKSawazakiSKobayashiMTerasawaKWatanabeSHamazakiT: The effect of fish oil on physical aggression in schoolchildren—a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Nutr Biochem 16: 163– 171, 2005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• StevensLZhangWPeckLKuczekTGrevstadNMahonAZentallSSArnoldLEBurgessJR: EFA supplementation in children with inattention, hyperactivity, and other disruptive behaviors. Lipids 38: 1007– 1021, 2003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PosternakMAZimmermanMKeitnerGIMillerIW: A reevaluation of the exclusion criteria used in antidepressant efficacy trials. Am J Psychiatry 159: 191– 200, 2002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LeeSWalkerJRJakulLSextonK: Does elimination of placebo responders in a placebo run-in increase the treatment effect in randomized clinical trials? A meta-analytic evaluation. Depress Anxiety 19: 10– 19, 2004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HorrobinDFJenkinsKBennettCNChristieWW: Eicosapentaenoic acid and arachidonic acid: collaboration and not antagonism is the key to biological understanding. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 66: 83– 90, 2002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ArterburnLMHallEBOkenH: Distribution, interconversion, and dose response of n-3 fatty acids in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 83: 1467S– 1476S, 2006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CarverJDBenfordVJHanBCantorAB: The relationship between age and the fatty acid composition of cerebral cortex and erythrocytes in human subjects. Brain Res Bull 56: 79– 85, 2001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UmegakiKHashimotoMYamasakiHFujiiYYoshimuraMSugisawaAShinozukaK: Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation–increased oxidative damage in bone marrow DNA in aged rats and its relation to antioxidant vitamins. Free Radic Res 34: 427– 435, 2001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LeonardiFAttorriLDi BenedettoRDi BiaseASanchezMNardiniMSalvatiS: Effect of arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids on the oxidative status of C6 glioma cells. Free Radic Res 39: 865– 874, 2005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• YangDYPanHCYenYJWangCCChuangYHChenSYLinSYLiaoSLRaungSLWuCWChouMCChiangANChenCJ: Detrimental effects of post-treatment with fatty acids on brain injury in ischemic rats. Neurotoxicology 28: 1220– 1229, 2007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FamSSMurpheyLJTerryESZackertWEChenYGaoLPandalaiSMilneGLRobertsLJPorterNAMontineTJMorrowJD: Formation of highly reactive A-ring and J-ring isoprostane-like compounds (A4/J4-neuroprostanes) in vivo from docosahexaenoic acid. J Biol Chem 277: 36076– 36084, 2002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GoyensPLSpilkerMEZockPLKatanMBMensinkRP: Compartmental modeling to quantify alpha-linolenic acid conversion after longer term intake of multiple tracer boluses. J Lipid Res 46: 1474– 1483, 2005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RapoportSIRaoJSIgarashiM: Brain metabolism of nutritionally essential polyunsaturated fatty acids depends on both the diet and the liver. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 77: 251– 261, 2007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LonerganPEMartinDSHorrobinDFLynchMA: Neuroprotective actions of eicosapentaenoic acid on lipopolysaccharide-induced dysfunction in rat hippocampus. J Neurochem 91: 20– 29, 2004.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• BrooksJDMilneGLYinHSanchezSCPorterNAMorrowJD: Formation of highly reactive cyclopentenone isoprostane compounds (A3/J3-isoprostanes) in vivo from eicosapentaenoic acid. J Biol Chem 283: 12043– 12055, 2008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BhattacharyaASunDRahmanMFernandesG: Different ratios of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic omega-3 fatty acids in commercial fish oils differentially alter pro-inflammatory cytokines in peritoneal macrophages from C57BL/6 female mice. J Nutr Biochem 18: 23– 30, 2007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ZhaoYJoshi-BarveSBarveSChenLH: Eicosapentaenoic acid prevents LPS-induced TNF-alpha expression by preventing NF-kappaB activation. J Am Coll Nutr 23: 71– 78, 2004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SierraSLara-VillosladaFComaladaMOlivaresMXausJ: Dietary eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid equally incorporate as decosahexaenoic acid but differ in inflammatory effects. Nutrition 24: 245– 254, 2008.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• MaesMMihaylovaIKuberaMBosmansE: Why fish oils may not always be adequate treatments for depression or other inflammatory illnesses: docosahexaenoic acid, an omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, induces a Th-1–like immune response. Neuro Endocrinol Lett 28: 875– 880, 2007.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• BarrowCJShahidiF: “Marine Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods.” Boca RatonFL: CRC Press, 2007.
   Google Scholar
• NadezhdaNSushchikMIKalachovaG: Seasonal dynamics of fatty acid content of a common food fish from the Yenisei river, Siberian grayling, Thymallus arcticus. Food Chem 104: 1353– 1358, 2007.
   Google Scholar