The digestive system involvement of antiphospholipid syndrome: pathophysiology, clinical characteristics, and treatment strategies

References

• Petri M. Antiphospholipid syndrome. Transl Res. 2020;225:70–81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McIntyre J, Wagenknecht D, Faulk W. Antiphospholipid antibodies: discovery, definitions, detection and disease. Prog Lipid Res. 2003;42(3):176–237.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miyakis S, Lockshin MD, Atsumi T, et al. International consensus statement on an update of the classification criteria for definite antiphospholipid syndrome (APS). J Thromb Haemost. 2006;4(2):295–306.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gomez-Puerta JA, Cervera R. Diagnosis and classification of the antiphospholipid syndrome. J Autoimmun. 2014;48-49:20–25.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asherson RA, Cervera R. Unusual manifestations of the antiphospholipid syndrome. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 2003;25(1):61–78.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cervera R, Piette JC, Font J, et al. Antiphospholipid syndrome: clinical and immunologic manifestations and patterns of disease expression in a cohort of 1,000 patients. Arthritis Rheum. 2002;46(4):1019–1027.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uthman I, Khamashta M. The abdominal manifestations of the antiphospholipid syndrome. Rheumatol (Oxford)). 2007;46(11):1641–1647.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meroni PL, Borghi MO, Raschi E, et al. Pathogenesis of antiphospholipid syndrome: understanding the antibodies. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2011;7(6):330–339.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fawzy M, Edrees A, Okasha H, et al. Gastrointestinal manifestations in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus. 2016;25(13):1456–1462.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sciascia S, Amigo M, Roccatello D, et al. Diagnosing antiphospholipid syndrome: 'extra-criteria' manifestations and technical advances. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2017;13(9):548–560.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corban M, Duarte-Garcia A, McBane R, et al. Antiphospholipid syndrome: role of vascular endothelial cells and implications for risk stratification and targeted therapeutics. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017;69(18):2317–2330.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duarte-García A, Pham M, Crowson C, et al. The epidemiology of antiphospholipid syndrome: a population-based study. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2019;71(9):1545–1552.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia D, Erkan D. Diagnosis and management of the antiphospholipid syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2018;379(13):1290.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang W, Gao F, Lu D, et al. Anti-β2 glycoprotein I antibodies in complex with β2 glycoprotein I induce platelet activation via two receptors: apolipoprotein E receptor 2' and glycoprotein I bα. Front Med. 2016;10(1):76–84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bontadi A, Ruffatti A, Falcinelli E, et al. Platelet and endothelial activation in catastrophic and quiescent antiphospholipid syndrome. Thromb Haemost. 2013;109(5):901–908.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sule G, Kelley W, Gockman K, et al. Increased adhesive potential of antiphospholipid syndrome neutrophils mediated by β2 integrin mac-1. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2020;72(1):114–124.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pierangeli S, Girardi G, Vega-Ostertag M, et al. Requirement of activation of complement C3 and C5 for antiphospholipid antibody-mediated thrombophilia. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;52(7):2120–2124.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bae S, Lee Y. Association between plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) 4G/5G polymorphism and circulating PAI-1 level in systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis: a meta-analysis. Z Rheumatol. 2020;79(3):312–318.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kolitz T, Shiber S, Sharabi I, et al. Cardiac manifestations of antiphospholipid syndrome with focus on its primary form. Front Immunol. 2019;10:941.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• La Rosa L, Covini G, Galperin C, et al. Anti-mitochondrial M5 type antibody represents one of the serological markers for anti-phospholipid syndrome distinct from anti-cardiolipin and anti-beta2-glycoprotein I antibodies. Clin Exp Immunol. 1998;112(1):144–151.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mankai A, Manoubi W, Ghozzi M, et al. High frequency of antiphospholipid antibodies in primary biliary cirrhosis. J Clin Lab Anal. 2015;29(1):32–36.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein R, Goller S, Bianchi L. Nodular regenerative hyperplasia (NRH) of the liver–a manifestation of organ-specific antiphospholipid syndrome? Immunobiology. 2003;207(1):51–57.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sipeki N, Davida L, Palyu E, et al. Prevalence, significance and predictive value of antiphospholipid antibodies in Crohn's disease. WJG. 2015;21(22):6952–6964.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nguyen HC, Dimou A, Govil A, et al. Primary antiphospholipid syndrome and necrotizing pancreatitis: a diagnostic challenge. J Clin Rheumatol. 2013;19(6):348–350.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cappell MS. Esophageal necrosis and perforation associated with the anticardiolipin antibody syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol. 1994;89(8):1241–1245.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naitoh H, Fukuchi M, Kiriyama S, et al. Recurrent, spontaneous esophageal ruptures associated with antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: report of a case. Int Surg. 2014;99(6):842–845.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Padda A, Mandalia A, Sawalha AH. Clinical images: black esophagus in antiphospholipid syndrome. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2017;69(7):1460.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalman DR, Khan A, Romain PL, et al. Giant gastric ulceration associated with antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol. 1996;91(6):1244–1247.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Srivastava V, Basu S, Ansari M, et al. Massive gangrene of the stomach due to primary antiphospholipid syndrome: report of two cases. Surg Today. 2010;40(2):167–170.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Malley J, Anatomy BB. Abdomen and pelvis, stomach gastroepiploic artery. StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL). 2020. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545306/
   Google Scholar
• Levine J, Branch D, Rauch J. The antiphospholipid syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2002;346(10):752–763.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koenig M, Roy M, Baccot S, et al. Thrombotic microangiopathy with liver, gut, and bone infarction (catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome) associated with HELLP syndrome. Clin Rheumatol. 2005;24(2):166–168.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vacca A, Garau P, Cauli A, et al. Primary antiphospholipid syndrome with mesenteric venous thrombosis presenting with intestinal infarction: a case description. Lupus. 2007;16(6):455–456.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang QY, Ye XH, Ding J, et al. Segmental small bowel necrosis associated with antiphospholipid syndrome: a case report. World J Gastroenterol. 2015;21(13):4096–4100.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Senatore FJ, McDonald K. Gastrointestinal: ischemic gastrointestinal manifestations in a young adult: Implicating a rare initial presentation of antiphospholipid syndrome. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2016;31(8):1381.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lock G. Acute intestinal ischemia. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2001;15(1):83–98.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuhn F, Schiergens TS, Klar E. Acute mesenteric ischemia. Visc Med. 2020;36(4):256–262.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vianna JL, D'Cruz DP, Khamashta MA, et al. Anticardiolipin antibodies in a patient with Crohn's disease and thrombosis. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1992;10(2):165–168.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kraiem I, Hadhri S, Ben Rejeb M, et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies and procoagulant profile in Tunisians with inflammatory bowel diseases. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost. 2016;22(8):734–742.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ates Y, Aslan M, Tuzun A, et al. Ulcerative colitis case beginning during pregnancy in a patient with antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. Turk J Gastroenterol. 2004;15(4):263–265.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Racine A, Nahon S, Jouannaud V, et al. Portal vein thrombosis in a patient with quiescent crohn's disease associated with hyper homocysteinemia and antiphospholipid antibody syndrome 1-yr after an ileocecal resection. Am J Gastroenterol. 2008;103(2):499–501.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choobi Anzali B, Bahreini M, Habibi B, et al. Ischemic colitis due to antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. Turk J Emerg Med. 2019;19(1):36–38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vivarelli M, La Barba G, Legnani C, et al. Repeated graft loss caused by recurrent hepatic artery thrombosis after liver transplantation. Liver Transpl. 2003;9(6):629–631.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pomeroy C, Knodell RG, Swaim WR, et al. Budd-Chiari syndrome in a patient with the lupus anticoagulant. Gastroenterol. 1984;86(1):158–161.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pati S, Bhattacharya S, Rakshit VM. Pregnancy complicated by Budd-Chiari syndrome and antiphospholipid syndrome. J Obstet Gynaecol. 2009;29(2):145–146.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mouelhi L, Chaieb M, Debbeche R, et al. Association Budd-Chiari syndrome, antiphospholipid syndrome and grave's disease. La Tunisie Medicale. 2009;87(2):164–166.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sciascia S, Mario F, Bertero MT. Chronic Budd-Chiari syndrome, abdominal varices, and caput medusae in 2 patients with antiphospholipid syndrome. J Clin Rheumatol. 2010;16(6):302.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yadav D, Chandra J, Sharma S, et al. Essential thrombocytosis and antiphospholipid antibody syndrome causing chronic Budd-Chiari syndrome. Indian J Pediatr. 2012;79(4):538–540.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sebastiani M, Manzini CU, Campomori F, et al. Unusual association between Budd-Chiari syndrome secondary to antiphospholipid syndrome and relapsing polychondritis: a case report and review of the literature. Clin Rheumatol. 2013;32(6):905–907.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bunge JJH, Wiersema US, Moelker A, et al. Refractory hypoxemia in a 23-year-old patient with Budd-Chiari syndrome. Chest. 2014;146(5):e149–e52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao X, Liu K, Wu J, et al. One case of Budd-Chiari syndrome secondary to antiphospholipid syndrome. Zhonghua Gan Zang Bing Za Zhi. 2016;24(2):140–142.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pandiaraja J, Sathyaseelan A. Budd- Chiari syndrome as an initial manifestation of systemic lupus erythematosus. J Clin Diagn Res. 2016;10(4):OD01–2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khan AH, Rahman MM, Rahaman MF, et al. Anti-phospholipid antibody syndrome presenting as huge ascites: a case report. Mymensingh Med J. 2018;27(4):883–887.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Goldhar HA, O'Meara P, Castellucci LA. A case of antiphospholipid syndrome presenting cryptogenically as Budd-Chiari syndrome, then fulminantly as Libman-Sacks endocarditis. BMJ Case Rep. 2019;12(5):e227450.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Khan F, Armstrong M, Mehrzad H, et al. Review article: a multidisciplinary approach to the diagnosis and management of Budd-Chiari syndrome. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2019;49(7):840–863.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Wettere M, Bruno O, Rautou P, et al. Diagnosis of Budd-Chiari syndrome. Abdom Radiol (NY)). 2018;43(8):1896–1907.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• d'Ythurbide G, Rousset P, Carbonne B, et al. Liver infarcts with early HELLP syndrome and probable catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome. Rev Med Interne. 2009;30(3):255–259.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guiu B, Loffroy R, Cercueil JP, et al. MRI diagnosis and follow-up of hepatic infarction in a patient with antiphospholipid syndrome in early pregnancy. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2011;283(3):659–662.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madsen BS, Havelund T. HELLP in the second trimester in a patient with antiphospholipid syndrome. Ugeskr Laeger. 2011;173(5):357–358.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kim JH, Yee C, Kuk JY, et al. Hepatic infarction in a pregnant woman with antiphospholipid syndrome and triple antibody positivity: a case report focusing on catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome. Obstet Gynecol Sci. 2016;59(5):397–402.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Li C, Zhao J, Zhao Y. Hepatic infarction caused by antiphospholipid syndrome secondary to systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol. 2019;46(7):755–756.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gomez-Puerta JA, Cervera R, Espinosa G, et al. Catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome during pregnancy and puerperium: maternal and fetal characteristics of 15 cases. Ann Rheum Dis. 2007;66(6):740–746.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le Thi Thuong D, Tieulie N, Costedoat N, et al. The HELLP syndrome in the antiphospholipid syndrome: retrospective study of 16 cases in 15 women. Ann Rheum Dis. 2005;64(2):273–278.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Appenzeller S, Souza F, Wagner Silva de Souza A, et al. HELLP syndrome and its relationship with antiphospholipid syndrome and antiphospholipid antibodies. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2011;41(3):517–523.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gómez-Puerta J, Sanin-Blair J, Galarza-Maldonado C. Pregnancy and catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 2009;36(2-3):85–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salman B, Al-Khabori M, Al-Huneini M, et al. Busulfan clearance does not predict the development of hepatic veno-occlusive disease in patients undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Int J Hematol. 2020;112(2):210–216.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Copelan EA. Hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation. N Engl J Med. 2006;354(17):1813–1826.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pappas SC, Malone DG, Rabin L, et al. Hepatic veno-occlusive disease in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 1984;27(1):104–108.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morio S, Oh H, Hirasawa A, et al. Hepatic veno-occlusive disease in a patient with lupus anticoagulant after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant. 1991;8(2):147–149.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rio B, Andreu G, Nicod A, et al. Thrombocytopenia in venocclusive disease after bone marrow transplantation or chemotherapy. Blood. 1986;67(6):1773–1776.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakamura H, Uehara H, Okada T, et al. Occlusion of small hepatic veins associated with systemic lupus erythematosus with the lupus anticoagulant and anti-cardiolipin antibody. Hepatogastroenterol. 1989;36(5):393–397.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Greisman SG, Thayaparan RS, Godwin TA, Lockshin MD. Occlusive vasculopathy in systemic lupus erythematosus. Association with anticardiolipin antibody. Arch Intern Med. 1991;151(2):389–392.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Inam S, Sidki K, Al-Marshedy AR, et al. Addison's disease, hypertension, renal and hepatic microthrombosis in 'primary' antiphospholipid syndrome. Postgrad Med J. 1991;67(786):385–388.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barak N, Orion Y, Schneider M, et al. Case report: hepatic involvement in antiphospholipid syndrome. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 1999;14(11):1124–1128.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bakshi N, Gulati N, Rastogi A, et al. Nodular regenerative hyperplasia - An under-recognized vascular disorder of liver. Pathol Res Pract. 2020;216(4):152833.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khanna R, Sarin SK. Non-cirrhotic portal hypertension - diagnosis and management. J Hepatol. 2014;60(2):421–441.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keegan AD, Brooks LT, Painter DM. Hepatic infarction and nodular regenerative hyperplasia of the liver with associated anticardiolipin antibodies in a young woman. J Clin Gastroenterol. 1994;18(4):309–313.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perez Ruiz F, Orte Martinez FJ, Zea Mendoza AC, et al. Nodular regenerative hyperplasia of the liver in rheumatic diseases: report of seven cases and review of the literature. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 1991;21(1):47–54.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morla RM, Ramos-Casals M, Garcia-Carrasco M, et al. Nodular regenerative hyperplasia of the liver and antiphospholipid antibodies: report of two cases and review of the literature. Lupus. 1999;8(2):160–163.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perez-Ruiz F, Zea-Mendoza AC. Nodular regenerative hyperplasia of the liver and antiphospholipid antibodies. J Clin Gastroenterol. 1998;27(1):90–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cadranel JF, Demontis R, Guettier C, et al. Nodular regenerative hyperplasia associated with primary antiphospholipid syndrome. Gastroenterol Clin Biol. 1996;20(10):901–904.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mackworth-Young CG, Gharavi AE, Boey ML, et al. Portal and pulmonary hypertension in a case of systematic lupus erythematosus: possible relationship with a clotting abnormality. Eur J Rheumatol Inflamm. 1984;7(3):71–74.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ordi J, Vargas V, Vilardell M, et al. Lupus anticoagulant and portal hypertension. Am J Med. 1988;84(3 Pt 1):566–568.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takahaski C, Kumagai S, Tsubata R, et al. Portal hypertension associated with anticardiolipin antibodies in a case of systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus. 1995;4(3):232–235.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Clerck LS, Michielsen PP, Ramael MR, et al. Portal and pulmonary vessel thrombosis associated with systemic lupus erythematosus and anticardiolipin antibodies. J Rheumatol. 1991;18(12):1919–1921.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lauwerys B, Lambert M, Vanoverschelde J, et al. Myocardial microangiopathy associated with antiphospholipid antibodies. Lupus. 2001;10(2):123–125.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cikrikcioglu MA, Erkal H, Hursitoglu M, et al. Idiopathic portal hypertension during a catastrophic attack in a patient with primary antiphospholipid syndrome. Acta Gastroenterol Belg. 2010;73(4):521–526.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schouten J, Verheij J, Seijo S. Idiopathic non-cirrhotic portal hypertension: a review. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 2015;10:67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Targonska-Stepniak B, Majdan M, Suszek D, et al. Overlap syndrome autoimmune hepatitis and primary biliary cirrhosis associated with antiphospholipid syndrome. Pol Merkur Lekarski. 2006;21(125):480–483. [PMID] [17345845]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pamfil C, Candrea E, Berki E, et al. Primary biliary cirrhosis-autoimmune hepatitis overlap syndrome associated with dermatomyositis, autoimmune thyroiditis and antiphospholipid syndrome. J Gastrointestin Liver Dis. 2015;24(1):101–104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hua R, Wu H, Zhang XW, et al. Probable catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome complicated with primary sclerosing cholangitis. J Dig Dis. 2012;13(11):601–603.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rossi FW, Lobasso A, Selleri C, et al. Autoimmune tautology in a complex case of polyautoimmunity: systemic sclerosis, autoimmune liver involvement, antiphospholipid syndrome and hashimoto's thyroiditis. Isr Med Assoc J. 2017;19(3):193–195.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fedorchenko SV, Klimenko ZB, Martynovich TL. Antiphospholipid syndrome at the onset of clinical manifestations of chronic autoimmune hepatitis of type I. Ter Arkh. 2009;81(11):14–16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romdhane H, Karoui S, Serghini M, et al. Crohn's disease, primary sclerosing cholangitis and antiphospholipid syndrome: an uncommon association. Tunis Med. 2009;87(5):349–351.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• You HX, Zhao JL, Wang Q, et al. Clinical features and risk factors of portal vein thrombosis in 28 patients with antiphospholipid syndrome. Zhonghua Nei ke za Zhi. 2019;58(12):894–898.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Junge U, Wienke J, Schuler A. Acute Budd-Chiari syndrome, portal and splenic vein thrombosis in a patient with ulcerative colitis associated with antiphospholipid antibodies and protein C deficiency. Z Gastroenterol. 2001;39(10):845–852.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asherson RA, Morgan SH, Harris EN, et al. Arterial occlusion causing large bowel infarction-a reflection of clotting diathesis in SLE. Clin Rheumatol. 1986;5(1):102–106.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnold MH, Schrieber L. Splenic and renal infarction in systemic lupus erythematosus: association with anti-cardiolipin antibodies. Clin Rheumatol. 1988;7(3):406–410.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wand O, Tayer-Shifman OE, Khoury S, et al. A practical approach to infarction of the spleen as a rare manifestation of multiple common diseases. Ann Med. 2018;50(6):494–500.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santilli D, Govoni M, Prandini N, et al. Autosplenectomy and antiphospholipid antibodies in systemic lupus erythematosus: a pathogenetic relationship? Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2003;33(2):125–133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheth K, Snyder A, Wu U, et al. Autosplenectomy causing catastrophic pneumococcal meningitis in a patient with lupus/antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. Conn Med. 2016;80(1):37–38.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pettersson T, Julkunen H. Asplenia in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus and antiphospholipid antibodies. J Rheumatol. 1992;19(7):1159.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bird AG, Lendrum R, Asherson RA, Hughes GR. Disseminated intravascular coagulation, antiphospholipid antibodies, and ischemic necrosis of extremities. Ann Rheum Dis. 1987;46(3):251–255.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang CR, Hsieh HC, Lee GL, et al. Pancreatitis related to antiphospholipid antibody syndrome in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol. 1992;19(7):1123–1125.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang KY, Kuo YC, Chiu CT, et al. Anti-cardiolipin antibody associated with acute hemorrhagic pancreatitis. Pancreas. 1993;8(5):654–657.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeh TS, Wang CR, Lee YT, et al. Acute pancreatitis related to anticardiolipin antibodies in lupus patients visiting an emergency department. Am J Emerg Med. 1993;11(3):230–232.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang LH, Francoeur L, Schweiger F. Pancreaticoportal fistula in association with antiphospholipid syndrome presenting as ascites and portal system thrombosis. Can J Gastroenterol. 2002;16(9):601–605.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spencer HL. Primary antiphospholipid syndrome as a new cause of autoimmune pancreatitis. Gut. 2004;53(3):468.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dellamonica J, Tieulie N, Bernardin G. Pancreatitis due to catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome. Pancreas. 2007;34(3):380–381.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vyas A, Kadikoy H, Haque W, et al. Catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome presenting as ischemic pancreatitis in systemic lupus erythematosus. JOP. 2009;10(5):566–569.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Savey L, Piette JC, Bellanger J, et al. Catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome (CAPS)-induced ischemic pancreatic ducts injury mimicking intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm (IPMN). Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2018;47(4):565–568.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cervera R, Espinosa G, Cordero A, et al. Intestinal involvement secondary to the antiphospholipid syndrome (APS): clinical and immunologic characteristics of 97 patients: comparison of classic and catastrophic APS. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2007;36(5):287–296.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bucciarelli S, Cervera R, Espinosa G, et al. Mortality in the catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome: causes of death and prognostic factors. Autoimmun Rev. 2006;6(2):72–75.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tektonidou MG, Andreoli L, Limper M, et al. EULAR recommendations for the management of antiphospholipid syndrome in adults. Ann Rheum Dis. 2019;78(10):1296–1304.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chighizola CB, Raimondo MG, Meroni PL. Management of thrombotic antiphospholipid syndrome. Semin Thromb Hemost. 2018;44(5):419–426.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burnett AE, Mahan CE, Vazquez SR, et al. Guidance for the practical management of the direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) in VTE treatment. J Thromb Thrombolysis. 2016;41(1):206–232.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bala MM, Celinska-Lowenhoff M, Szot W, et al. Antiplatelet and anticoagulant agents for secondary prevention of stroke and other thromboembolic events in people with antiphospholipid syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;10:CD012169.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen H, Hunt B, Efthymiou M, et al. Rivaroxaban versus warfarin to treat patients with thrombotic antiphospholipid syndrome, with or without systemic lupus erythematosus (RAPS): a randomised, controlled, open-label, phase 2/3, non-inferiority trial. Lancet Haematol. 2016;3(9):e426-36–e436.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woller S, Stevens S, Kaplan D, et al. Protocol modification of apixaban for the secondary prevention of thrombosis among patients with antiphospholipid syndrome study. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost. 2018;24(1):192.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dufrost V, Risse J, Reshetnyak T, et al. Increased risk of thrombosis in antiphospholipid syndrome patients treated with direct oral anticoagulants. Results from an international patient-level data meta-analysis. Autoimmun Rev. 2018;17(10):1011–1021.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chighizola C, Meroni P. Thrombosis and anti-phospholipid syndrome: a 5-year update on treatment. Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2018;20(7):44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chou H, Jang S, Chen C, et al. Limb salvage in antiphospholipid syndrome with repetitive arterial occlusions. Neth J Med. 2019;77(7):264–267.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valente M, Saab J, Cordato D, et al. The diagnostic utility of routine clot analysis after endovascular thrombectomy in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus and antiphospholipid syndrome. J Clin Neurosci. 2019;70:247–249.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vergallo R, Aguirre A, Abtahian F, et al. Recurrent myocardial infarctions and premature coronary atherosclerosis in a 23-year-old man with antiphospholipid syndrome. Thromb Haemost. 2016;115(2):237–239.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen C. Direct thrombolytic therapy in portal and mesenteric vein thrombosis. J Vasc Surg. 2012;56(4):1124–1126.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakayama S, Murashima N, Isobe Y. Superior mesenteric venous thrombosis treated by direct aspiration thrombectomy. Hepatogastroenterol. 2008;55(82–83):367–370.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brandt L, Boley S. AGA technical review on intestinal ischemia. Am Gastrointest Asso. Gastroenterol. 2000;118(5):954–968.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boley S, Kaleya R, Brandt L. Mesenteric venous thrombosis. Surg Clin North Am. 1992;72(1):183–201.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hinojosa C, Anaya-Ayala J, Bermudez-Serrato K, et al. Surgical interventions for organ and limb ischemia associated with primary and secondary antiphospholipid antibody syndrome with arterial involvement. Vasc Endovascular Surg. 2017;51(8):550–554.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar