References
- American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, the fourth edition (DSM-IV). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press; 1994.
- American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, the fifth edition (DSM-5). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press; 2013.
- Pai A, Suris AM, North CS. Posttraumatic stress disorder in the DSM-5: controversy, change, and conceptual considerations. Behav Sci. 2017;7(4):7.
- Hoge CW, Yehuda R, Castro CA, et al. Unintended consequence of changing the definition of posttraumatic stress disorder in DSM-5: critique and call for action. JAMA Psychiatry. 2016;73(7):750–752.
- Contractor AA, Roley-Roberts ME, Lagdon S, et al. Heterogeneity in patterns of DSM-5 posttraumatic stress disorder and depression symptoms: latent profile analyses. J Affect Disord. 2017; 212:17–24.
- Dickstein BD, Suvak M, Litz BT, et al. Heterogeneity in the course of posttraumatic stress disorder: trajectories of symptomatology. J Trauma Stress. 2010;23(3):331–339.
- Elhai JD, Naifeh JA, Forbes D, et al. Heterogeneity in clinical presentations of posttraumatic stress disorder among medical patients: testing factor structure variation using factor mixture modeling. J Traum Stress. 2011;24(4):435–443.
- Baker GE. Wittgenstein: concepts or conceptions. Harv Rev Philos. 2001;9(1):7–23.
- Hughes J. Ultimate justification: Wittgenstein and medical ethics. J Med Ethics. 1995;21(1):25–30.
- Rosenman S, Nasti J. Psychiatric diagnoses are not mental processes: Wittgenstein on conceptual confusion. Aust NZ J Psychiatry. 2012;46(11):1046–1052.
- Insel TR. Next-generation treatments for mental disorders. Sci Transl Med. 2012;4:155psc19.
- Armour C, Fried EI, Olff M. PTSD symptomics: Network analyses in the field of psychotraumatology. Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2017;8(sup3):1398003.
- Fried EI. Moving forward: how depression heterogeneity hinders progress in treatment and research. Expert Rev Neurother. 2017;17(5):423–425.
- Bentall RP, Wickham S, Shevlin M, et al. Do specific early-life adversities lead to specific symptoms of psychosis? A study from the 2007 the adult psychiatric morbidity survey. Schizophr Bull. 2012;38(4):734–740.
- Costello. The advantages of the symptom approach to depression. In: Costello C, editor. Symptoms of depression. New, York: John Wiley and Sons, 1993. p. 1–21.
- Fried EI, Nesse RM. Depression is not a consistent syndrome: an investigation of unique symptom patterns in the STAR*D study. J Affect Disord. 2015;172:96–102.
- Persons JB. The advantages of studying psychological phenomena rather than psychiatric diagnoses. Am Psychol. 1986;41(11):1252–1260.
- Borsboom D. A network theory of mental disorders. World Psychiatry. 2017;16(1):5–13.
- Cramer AO, Waldorp LJ, van der Maas HL, et al. Comorbidity: a network perspective. Behav Brain Sci. 2010;33(2-3):137–150.
- Wichers M, Wigman JTW, Myin-Germeys I. Micro-level affect dynamics in psychopathology viewed from complex dynamical system theory. Emot Rev. 2015;7(4):362–367.
- Fisher AJ, Boswell JF. Enhancing the personalization of psychotherapy with dynamic assessment and modeling. Assessment. 2016;4:496–506.
- Molenaar P. A manifesto on psychology as idiographic science: bringing the person back into scientific psychology, this time forever. Measurement. 2004;2:201–218.
- Fried EI, Epskamp S, Nesse RM, et al. What are 'good' depressive symptoms? Comparing the centrality of DSM and non-DSM symptoms of depression in a network analysis. J Affect Disord. 2016;189:314–320.
- Opsahl T, Agneessens F, Skvoretz J. Node centrality in weighted networks: generalizing degrees and shortest paths. Soc Netw. 2010;32(3):245–251.
- Epskamp S, Waldorp LJ, Mottus R, et al. The Gaussian graphical model in cross-sectional and time-series data. Multivariate Behav Res. 2018;53(4):453–480.
- Armour C, Fried EI, Deserno MK, et al. A network analysis of DSM-5 posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and correlates in U.S. military veterans. J Affect Disord. 2017;45:49–59.
- van Borkulo C, Boschloo L, Borsboom D, et al. Association of symptom network structure with the course of depression. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015;72(12):1219–1226.
- Borsboom D, Cramer A. Network analysis: an integerative approach to the structure of psychopathology. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2013;9(1):91–121.
- Sullivan CP, Smith AJ, Lewis M, et al. Network analysis of PTSD symptoms following mass violence. Psychol Trauma. 2018;10(1):58–66.
- Spiller TR, Schick M, Schnyder U, et al. Symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder in a clinical sample of refugees: a network analysis. Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2017;8(sup3):1318032.
- Birkeland MS, Heir T. Making connection: exploring the centrality of posttraumatic stress symptoms and covariates after a terrorist attack. Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2017;8(sup3):1333387.
- Ross J, Murphy D, Armour C. A network analysis of DSM-5 posttraumatic stress disorder and functional impairment in UK treatment-seeking veterans. J Anxiety Disord. 2018;57:7–15.
- Phillips RD, Wilson SM, Sun D; VA Mid-Atlantic MIRECC Workgroup, Morey R. Posttraumatic stress disorder symptom network analysis in U.S. military veterans: examining the impact of combat exposure. Front Psychiatry. 2018;9:608.
- Mitchell KS, Wolf EJ, Bovin MJ, et al. Network models of DSM-5 posttraumatic stress disorder: implications for ICD-11. J Abnorm Psychol. 2017;126(3):355–366.
- Kim D, Kim D, Lee H, et al. Prevalence and clinical correlates of dissociative subtype of posttraumatic stress disorder at an outpatient trauma clinic in South Korea. Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2019;10(1):1657372.
- First MB, Spitzer RI, Gibbon M, et al. The Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders-Clinician Version (SCID-CV). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press; 1997.
- Blake D, Weathers F, Nagy L, et al. Clinician Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS). Boston, MA: National Center for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Behavioral Science Division-Boston; 1990.
- Lee B-Y, Kim Y, Yi S-M, et al. A reliability and validity study of a Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale. J Korean Neuropsychiatr Assoc. 1999;38:514–522.
- Weathers FW, Ruscio AM, Keane TM. Psychometric properties of nine scoring rules for the Clinician Administered Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Scale. Psychol Assessment. 1999;11(2):124–133.
- Lowinger T, Solomon Z. PTSD, guilt, and shame among reckless drivers. J Loss Trauma. 2004;9(4):327–344.
- Lifton RJ. On the consciousness of holocaust. Psychohist Rev. 1980;9(1):3–22.
- Epskamp S, Cramer AOJ, Waldorp LJ, et al. qgraph: network visualizations of relationships in psychometric data. J Stat Softw. 2012; 48:1–18.
- Tibshirani R. Regression shrinkage and selection via the lasso. J R Stat Soc Ser B. 1996;58:267–288.
- Chen J, Chen Z. Extended Bayesian information criteria for model selection with large model speaces. Biometrika. 2008;95(3):759–771.
- van Borkulo CD, Borshboom D, Epskamp S, et al. A new method for constructing networks from binary data. Sci Rep. 2014;4:1–10.
- Reichardt J, Bornholdt S. Statistical mechanics of community detection. Phys Rev E. 2006;74(1):016110.
- Csardi G, Nepusz T. The igraph software package for complex network research. Inter J Complex Systems. 2006;1695:1–9.
- McNally RJ, Heeren A, Robinaugh DJ. A bayesian network analysis of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in adults reporting childhood sexual abuse. Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2017;8(sup3):1341276.
- Stein DJ, Koenen KC, Friedman MJ, et al. Dissociation in posttraumatic stress disorder: evidence from the world mental health surveys. Biol Psychiatry. 2013;73(4):302–312.
- MaCanlies EC, Sarkisian K, Andrew ME, et al. Association of peritraumatic dissociation with symptoms of depression and posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychol Trauma. 2017;9:479–484.
- Bae H, Kim D, Park YC. Dissociation predicts treatment response in eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for posttraumatic stress disorder. J Trauma Dissociation. 2016;17(1):112–130.
- van der Hart O, Nijenhuis ER, Steele K. Dissociation: an insufficiently recognized major feature of complex posttraumatic stress disorder. J Traum Stress. 2005;18(5):413–423.
- Lanius RA, Brand B, Vermetten E, et al. The dissociative subtype of posttraumatic stress disorder: rationale, clinical and neurobiological evidence, and implications. Depress Anxiety. 2012;29(8):701–708.
- Birmes P, Brunet A, Carreras D, et al. The predictive power of peritraumatic dissociation and acute stress symptoms for posttraumatic stress disorder: a three-month prospective study. AJP. 2003;160(7):1337–1339.
- Schafer I, Barkmann C, Riedesser P, et al. Posttraumatic syndrome in children and adolescents after road traffic accidents - A prospective cohort study. Psychopathology. 2006;39:159–164.
- Ursano RJ, Fullerton CS, Epstein RS, et al. Peritraumatic dissociation and posttraumatic stress disorder following motor vehicle accidents. Am J Psychiatry. 1999;156(11):1808–1810.
- van Loey NE, Maas CJ, Faber AW, et al. Predictors of chronic posttraumatic stress syndromes following burn injury: results of a longitudinal study. J Traum Stress. 2003;16(4):361–369.
- van der Velden PG, Wittmann L. The independent predictive value of peritraumatic dissociation for PTSD symptomatology after type I trauma. Clin Psycho Rev. 2008;28(6):1009–1020.
- Elsesser K, Freyth C, Lohrmann T, et al. Startle reactivity and peritraumatic dissociations in acute stress disorder. J Psychophysiol. 2008;22(4):185–194.
- Friedman MJ. Future pharmacotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: prevention and treatment. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2002;25(2):427–441.
- Horowitz MJ. Stress-response syndromes: a review of posttraumatic and adjustment disorders. PS. 1986;37:241–249.
- Cloitre M, Petkova E, Wang J, et al. An examination of the influence of a sequential treatment on the course and impact of dissociation among women with PTSD related to childhood abuse. Depress Anxiety. 2012;29(8):709–717.
- Stige SH. A stabilization group approach for heterogeneous populations of trauma clients. J Aggress Maltreat Trauma. 2011;20(8):886–903.
- Follette VM, Vijay A. Mindfulness for trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder. In: Didonna F, editor. Clinical Handbook of Mindfulness. New York, N.Y.: Springer; 2009. p. 299–317.
- Najavits LM. Seeking safety: a treatment manual for PTSD and substance abuse. New York, N.Y: Guilford; 2002.
- Megias JI, Ryan E, Vaquero JM, et al. Comparison of traumatic and positive memories in people with and without PTSD profile. Appl Cognit Psychol. 2007;21:117–130.
- Porter S, Birt AR. Is traumatic memory special? A comparison of traumatic memory characteristics with memory for other emotional life experiences. Appl Cognit Psychol. 2001;15(7):S101–S117.
- Steele K, Dorahy MJ, Van der Hart O, et al. Dissociation versus alterations in consciousness: related but different concepts In: Dell PF, O’Neil JA, editors. Dissociation and the dissociative disorders: DSM–V and beyond. New York, NY: Routledge; 2009. p. 155–170.
- Armour C, Karstoft K-I, Richardson JD. The co-occurrence of PTSD and dissociation: differentiating severe PTSD from dissociative-PTSD. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2014;49(8):1297–1306.
- Dorahy MJ, van der Hart O. DSM-5's posttraumatic stress disorder with dissociative symptoms: challenges and future directions. J Trauma Dissociation. 2015;16(1):7–28.
- Wolf EJ, Miller MW, Reardon AF, et al. A latent class analysis of dissociation and posttraumatic stress disorder: evidence for a dissociative subtype. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2012;69(7):698–705.
- Hansen M, Ross J, Armour C. Evidence of the dissociative PTSD subtype: a systematic literature review of latent class and profile analytic studies of PTSD. J Affect Disord. 2017;213:59–69.
- Schubert CC, Punamäki RL. Mental health among torture survivors: cultural background, refugee status and gender. Nord J Psychiatry. 2011;65(3):175–182.
- Ferrada-Noli M, Sundbom E. Cultural bias in suicidal behaviour among refugees with post-traumatic stress disorder. Nord J Psychiatry. 1996;5:185–191.
- Foynes MM, Platt M, Hall GC, et al. The impact of Asian values and victim − perpetrator closeness on the disclosure of emotional, physical, and sexual abuse. Psychol Trauma. 2014;6(2):134.
- Lipschitz DS, Kaplan ML, Sorkenn J, et al. Childhood abuse, adult assault, and dissociation. Comprehen Psychiatry. 1996;37(4):261–266.